
Class 
Book.. 



CqmmW , $4^2. 



CDPimiGtIT DETOSZC 



/; 






A HISTORY 

OF THE 

UNITED STATES OE AMERICA 

OTitt) m 31ntrotJuction j]^atrating 
THE DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT 

OF 

NORTH AMERICA 



BY : aJ 

HORACE e!'sCUDDER 

Attthor op "A Short History of the United States of America 
FOR THE Use of Beginners" 



WITH MAPS, PORTRAITS. AND OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS 



■> }■> ■> » o 



BUTLER, SHELDON & COMPANY 

NEW YORK PHILADELPHIA CHICAGO 



THE LIBRARY OF 

CONGRESS, 
Two Copita Received 

SEP. 18 1901 

COPVRIQHT ENTHr 



LASS a> XXc. Nj. 

COPY B. 



CoPTRiGHT, 1897, 1901, 
By HOKACE E. SCUDDER„ 

6 






PREFACE. 



A DOZEN years ago I wrote a school history of the United 
States, and the test of its use has shown me wherein it was 
defective. My own study of history during the same period 
has furthermore enabled me to see how I could improve my 
original presentation of the subject. The present book is the 
result. The general structure remains the same as before; 
there is the same cleavage of periods, and the same interpreta- 
tion of cause and effect in the development of the Union. 
But the emphasis is somewhat differently placed, and a much 
greater attention has been paid to that element gf personality 
which gives vitality to all history. By biographic detail and 
a liberal use of portraits I have sought to interest the student 
in the men who have been the architects of the nation. 

When I introduced my first book I said: "The secret of 
success in any history must lie in the power of the author to 
conceive the development of life, and to discover the critical 
passages, the transition periods, the great epochs. I hope I 
have helped young people to understand the movements which 
I see from the time when America was first disclosed to the 
eyes of Europe down to the present day. I wish to emphasize 
my sense of the importance to American children of connect- 
ing the history of their country with the changes which have 
been taking place in Europe during the period of our growth — 
changes of the utmost consequence in the development of our 
own national life, an understanding of which is essential to an 
intelligent reading of American history. Therefore I have 
never lost sight of the fact that down to the close of the last 
war with England, America faced the Atlantic; and any one 

V 



vi PBEFACE. 

who would read her history aright must often take his stand 
upon the European shore." 

But there are two other considerations which have grown to 
be still weightier in my mind during the past decade. One is 
the momentous importance of a clear conception in the minds 
of pupils in our schools to-day of the vital connection between 
the present and the past. The other is the equally important 
need of an interchange of acquaintance between the different 
parts of the nation. As the vigorous Scripture has it : "Now 
hath God set the members each one of them in the body, even 
as it pleased him. And if they were all one member, where 
were the body ? But now they are many members, but one 
body. And the eye cannot say to the hand, I have no need of 
thee ; or again, the head to the feet, I have no need of you." 
Therefore it has been of the greatest interest to me to try to' 
give the students of American history in the East some notion 
of the great expansion of life in the West ; to give to Western 
students a clear intelligence of the beginnings of the nation in 
the East ; to reconcile the minds of the North and the South 
by a fair disclosure of the underlying conditions which led to 
the rupture, now happily closed ; above all, to show that insti- 
tutions of free government are not born in a day to be over- 
thrown in a night, but that they are the slowly developed 
results of struggle and toil and sacrifice, not to be lightly 
swept aside as if they were mere fashions of an hour. 

I have written in the thought that our country is a land 
which was reserved until the new birth of Europe ; that it was 
peopled by men and women who crossed the seas in faith ; that 
its foundations have been laid deep in a divine order ; that the 
nation has been trusted with liberty. A trust carries with it 
grave duties; the enlargement of liberty and justice is in the 
victory of the people over the forces of evil. So I bid God- 
speed to all teachers, of those who are to receive the trust of 

citizenship. 

H. E. S. 

Cambridge, Mass., Patriots' Day, 1897. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Hints to Teachers xi 

Untrotiiiction. 

DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA 

CHAPTER 

I. Spain and America ..... 

II. The Natives of North America 

III. The French, the Dutch, and the Swedes 

lY. The English in America. I. . 

V. The English in America. II. . 

VI. The Struggle for a Continent 

Topical Analysis for Beview 

Chronological Table . . 



1 

19 
26 
39 
69 
88 
102 
194 



Book 31. 

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 

I. The Thirteen English Colonies 109 

II. England and the Colonies 123 

III. The First Resistance 136 

IV. The Declaration of Independence 153 

V. The War for Independence 164 

VI. The Confederation and the Constitution . . . 187 

Topical Analysis for Revieiv 195 

Chronological Table 200 

VII. The New Union ' . .202 

VIII. The People of the United States 209 

IX. The United States and Europe 221 

X. The Expansion of the Union ...... 230 

XI. The United States entangled with Europe . . . 236 

XII. The Second War for Independence .... 243 

Topical Analysis for Beview 253 

The Achninistrations . ....... 255 

Chronological Table 258 

vii 



viu 



CONTENTS. 



3300it UK. 



CHAPTER 

XIII. 

XIV. 

XV. 

XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 



XIX. 

XX. 

XXI. 

XXII. 

XXIII. 

XXIV. 

XXV. 

XXVI. 



II. 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 

PAGE 

The Union and its Neighbors ..... 261 

Internal Development 269 

The System of Slavery 278 

Administration of Andrew Jackson .... 288 

Texas and the Mexican War 297 

Oregon and California 308 

Topical Analysis for Beview 316 

Tlie Administrations ........ 319 

Chronological Table 322 

The Middle of the Century, ..... 324 

The Approaching Conflict ...... 338 

Secession .......... 346 

The War for the Union. I. .... . 357 

The War for the Union. II 374 

Reconstruction 387 

After the Centennial Year ...... 398 

The Present Nation ....... 427 

Topical Analysis for Beview 432 

The Administrations 435 

Chronological Table 443 

5>upplement. 

The Preparation in Europe for the Discovery and 

Occupation of North America 445 

The Physical Preparation of North America for 

Occupation by European People .... 457 



A. 



Four 

I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 



^ppcntiix. 

Historical Documents : 



The Compact of the Pilgrim Fathers . 

The Declaration of Independence . 

The Ordinance of 1787 .... 

The Constitution of the United States 
The States and Territories — Census of 1900 . 
Nationalities of Immigrants by Decades. 1841-1900 



467 
467 
471 
478 
495 
496 



General Index 



497 



MAPS. 



COLORED. 

PAGB 

Routes of Navigators to India and America in the Fifteenth and Six- 
teenth Centuries 11 

New Spain and the West Indies 15 

English and French Possessions in North America at the Time of the 

French and Indian War ; also Colonial Charter Claims ... 89 

New England and New Netherland 89 

The New England States during the War for Independence . . . 145 

The Middle States during the War for Independence 165 

The Southern States during the War for Independence .... 177 

Territorial Acquisitions of the United States 233 

Mexico. — To illustrate the War, 1846-1848 297 

To illustrate the War for the Union 357 

Note. — Red indicates non-seceding Slave States. Pink indicates Free States. 

The United States of America 387 

Divisions of the Country used by the United States Weather Bureau '. 429 

Physical Basis of the United States 457 

UNCOLORED. 



Toscanelli's Map . . 

The Ocean Side of Behaim's 

Globe .... 
St. Lawrence River and Gulf 
Explorations of Champlain and 

Hudson .... 
Coast visited by Raleigh's VeS' 

sels 

First Settlement in Virginia 
The New England Coast 
Braddock's Route 

Acadia 

Capture of Quebec 
Vicinity of Boston 
Arnold's Route 
Vicinity of New York . 
Vicinity of Philadelphia 
Crown Point and Ticonderoga 



PAGE 

4 



28 

29 

43 

45 

57 

92 

94 

98 

143 

149 

168 

169 

170 



The Country between Montreal 
and New York 

The Siege of Yorktown 

Western Movement of Center of 
Population .... 

The Canadian Frontier and Vicin- 
ity of Washington . 

The Creek War . . . . 

Niagara River .... 

Campaign of General Taylor 

Charleston Harbor and its Ap- 
proaches .... 

Washington and Vicinity . 

The Operations of the Army of 
the Potomac, etc. . 

Vicinity of Vicksburg . 

The Peninsula, etc., between Nor- 
folk and Richmond 



172 

182 

210 

244 
247 
248 
304 

349 
355 



377 



380 



vs. 



PORTRAITS. 





PAGE 




PAGE 


Adams, John 


. 145 


Jackson, Andrew . 


. 250 


Adams, John Quiucy . 


. 284 


Jackson, Thomas Jonathan 


. 370 


Adams, Samuel 


. 138 


Jefferson, Thomas 


. 156 


Arthur, Chester Alan . 


. 405 


Johnson, Andrew . 


. 389 


Boone, Daniel 


. 216 


Jones, John Paul . 


. 179 


Bryant, William Cullen 


. 271 


Lafayette .... 


. 162 


Buchanan, James . 


. 342 


Lee, Robert Edward . 


. 371 


Burke, Edmund . 


. 150 


Lincoln, Abraham 


. 260 


Calhoun, John Caldwell 


. 280 


Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth 


. 335 


Calvert, Cecil 


. 77 


McClellan, George Brinton . 


. 359 


Clay, Henry . 


. 290 


McKinley, William 


. 415 


Cleveland, Grover 


. 409 


Madison, James . 


. 240 


Columbus, Christopher 


. 10 


Marshall, John . 


. 204 


Cornwallis . 


. 183 


Meade, George Gordon 


. 376 


Custer, George Armstrong 


. 401 


Monroe, James 


. 262 


Davis, Jefferson . 


. 348 


Morse, Samuel Finley Breese 


. 327 


Drake, Sir Francis 


. 41 


Oglethorpe, James 


. 85 


Edison, Thomas Alva . 
Emerson, Ralph Waldo 
Ericsson, John 


. 399 
. 334 
. 367 


Penn, William . 
Pierce, Franklin . 
Poe, Edgar Allan . 


. 71 
. 339 
. 332 


Farragut, David Glascoe 


. 366 


Polk, James Knox 


. 302 


Fillmore, Millard . 
Franklin, Benjamin 


. 325 
. 119 


Raleigh, Sir Walter . 


. 42 


Fulton, Robert . 


. 273 


Sherman, William Tecumseh 


. 379 


Garfield, James Abram 


. 403 


Smith, John .... 


. 47 


Grant, Ulysses Simpson 
Greene, Nathanael 


. 364 

. 181 


Taylor, Zachary . 

Tyler, John .... 


. 306 
. 301 


Hamilton, Alexander . 
Hancock, John 
Harrison, Benjamin 


. 193 
. 157 
. 411 


Van Buren, Martin 
Vespucci, Amerigo 


. 295 
. 13 


Harrison, William Henry 


. 300 


Washington, George . 


. 108 


Hawthorne, Nathaniel 


. 333 


Webster, Daniel . 


. 293 


Hayes, Rutherford Bircharc 


I . 402 


Whitney, Eli . . 


. 211 


Henry, Patrick 


. 131 


Winthrop, John . 


„ 54 



HINTS TO TEACHERS. 



The history of the United States may fairly be said to begin 
with the fall of Quebec, for just as soon as it was determined 
that the English were to be masters of the continent, the spirit 
of self-government began to assert itself, and agitation did not 
cease till the colonies were organized as States, and the States 
composed a Union. All that precedes the fall of Quebec, there- 
fore, is treated as Introduction to the history. But in studying 
history one is constantly pushing back farther and farther to 
the beginnings of beginnings, and in order to give some satis- 
faction to this craving for getting at the source of things, two 
supplementary chapters have been added which give in outline 
the condition of Europe before the discovery of America, and 
the physical characteristics of the continent as affecting his- 
torical development. Where the students of this history are 
mature enough, it is advised that these two chapters be studied 
first; and I strongly recommend that in all cases the class 
read over these chapters at the outset of their study, and that 
the teacher, reading with them, make running comment on the 
text. 

The plan of the book is designed to help the student to 
a logical conception of the history of the country ; for one of 
the great advantages gained by the study of history is the 
strengthening of the logical faculty, — the practice of answer- 
ing the whys of events. Thus, following the Introduction 
which shows the ways leading up to the Union, there are two 
books, one devoted to the establishment of the Union which 
took place when the new nation was rendered finally inde- 
pendent of Europe, the other devoted to the development of 

xi 



Xll HINTS TO TEACHEBS. 

the Union, a process still going on. Again, each book is 
divided into chapters, designed to group the great topics 
of the book, and each chapter is broken up into sections, 
representing the succession of topics; under these sections 
there are sometimes given unnumbered sub-sections, indicated 
like the main ones by heavy-face type, and for convenience in 
seeing distinct statements, these sections are often broken up 
into paragraphs. 

It will be found of advantage to give to each part, to each 
subdivision, indeed, a thorough review before proceeding to 
the next. For this purpose a series of aids to the pupil has 
been provided. At the end of each chapter will be found 
questions covering the paragraphs in the chapter. They are 
questions which cannot be answered by yes or 710; they require 
the x^upil to know what he has studied, and very often to have 
thought carefully about what he has read. They do not 
exhaust the subject, — any skillful teacher can vary and mul- 
tiply questions indefinitely, — but they serve the purpose of 
enabling a pupil to try himself. The best questions are those 
which grow out of the recitations of a pupil, and the series 
given in this book should be taken as containing rather sug- 
gestions than a hard and fast set of questions. It is advised 
that these questions on the text be not used by the teacher in 
hearing the recitation, but for purposes of review. Along with 
each of these series is another briefer series, to be used, as the 
title Search Questions implies, to quicken the student's interest 
in the period just studied. There are numberless byways 
which a school history cannot explore ; no history will answer 
all the questions which spring up in the mind of an intelligent- 
reader, but the life of historical study consists first in master- 
ing the material placed before one, and then in pushing on, in 
exploring the territory laid open. These Search Questions are 
not idle conundrums, and they do not often refer to what may 
be called the mere curiosities of history ; but they are designed 
to start the student upon research, and upon using the books 
whose titles are jotted down at the foot of the page. 



HINTS TO TEACHEBS. xiii 

At convenient landing places Topical Analyses have been 
introduced to aid still further in securing a thorough and fresh 
examination. It will be observed that they are not mere 
straight-away indexes to what has been passed over. Every 
good teacher knows how desirable it is to get rid of a parrot- 
like repetition of an author's words in a text-book. These 
Topical Analyses break up the narrative into natural groups 
of related facts, and enable one to get cross sections of the 
history ; they furnish good subjects for compositions and 
debates; they give starting points for new inquiries; and, 
above all, they help to test the student's knowledge of the 
text, by compelling him to follow a new order, and to use his 
own language in stating facts and causes. 

It is important to bear in mind that a capital opportunity is 
afforded by the study of history for the cultivation of the 
faculty of expression. A word for word recitation of the 
chapter is not to be encouraged. It is a feat of the memory, 
and may be quite unattended by any real appropriation of the 
passage recited. But j)upils should be encouraged to use, 
when they recite, finished sentences, and not be allowed in a 
careless fashion to fall into a broken, halting, ungrammatical 
way of tumbling out facts ; a scholar who recites in this loose 
manner will not really know what he is reciting half so well 
as when he has trained himself to frame neat, clear, and com- 
pact statements. For this reason, a teacher should not only 
make much of perfection of the spoken answer, but should use 
the history work as the basis of literary work. To aid the 
pupils, a number of subjects for composition and debate have 
been provided after each chapter. They are suggestions only, 
but they may serve to prompt other subjects also. Especially 
it would be well to call frequently for the writing of bio- 
graphical sketches. Outlines of leading facts have been given 
both in the text and footnotes, and by means of these, ency- 
clopedias, and regular biographies, very interesting studies of 
the lives of men of importance can be drawn up. 

The debates which are suggested afford an excellent oppor- 



XIV 



HINTS TO TEjCCHEBS. 



tunity for training in expression, and for bringing out the 
knowledge of the debaters, and the accuracy of their informa- 
tion. It is a good plan to let two of the class act as leaders 
and choose sides just as in any game ; then to give the two 
parties time to divide up the subject, and to work by them- 
selves over the treatment of it. During the debate, if careful 
rules are regarded, it should be a part of the game for the 
opposite side to ply the debater with questions. Debates con- 
ducted before the whole school not only train the debaters, but 
serve as an excellent quickener of the wits of those who listen. 

The study of civil government may be promoted by an 
organization of the school or class into a Debating Club with 
officers and a constitution. 

The maps, large and small, offer good opportunities for spe- 
cial examination and review. In reviews of this kind, it is 
not necessary to draw the map upon the board. Let the pupil 
have the map before him. By a little practice he will become 
very expert in the needed preparation for these special exer- 
cises. 

It may be a disappointment to some not to find the facts of 
this history regularly marshaled under the separate adminis- 
trations. There is no doubt an advantage in such an arrange- 
ment. It helps the memory by associating the succession of 
facts with successive quadrenniums, which in turn are named 
after the Presidents in their order. On the other hand, there 
is a degree of artificiality in such a disposition of history. The 
changes in administration have been of consequence, some- 
times of great consequence ; but it is likely to give a mistaken 
notion of the relation of administrations to the development of 
the nation, to mislead one as to the true cause for the effects 
produced, when the incidents of the history are fixed by the 
law of association with certain persons at the time holding 
office. I have, therefore, while noting the administrations in 
turn, treated them as parts of the incident of history rather 
than as four-mile posts. But for the convenience of those 
who wish to use them as centers about which to group history, 



HINTS TO TEACHERS, XV 

I have made out full tables, following the topical analyses; 
and it would be a fresh exercise of a review order to call for a 
recital of historic facts under each administration. These can 
be gathered not only from the text itself, but from the Chrono- 
logical Tables appended to each large group. 

Finally, a word should be said of the use to which the copi- 
ous Index may be put. The familiar use of an index is to find 
the page readily where a person or an incident is treated ; the 
history becomes a good book of reference when it is equipped 
with a good index. But there is a further use which so full 
an index as the one here given will serve. It brings together 
many scattered references to some one subject which is not 
treated once for all in a single passage, and it may be made 
the means thus of a further review. Suppose, for example, a 
pupil is writing a biographical sketch of a character in history. 
By reference to the index he will very likely find incidental 
references which otherwise might escape him. Or again, if 
one wished to trace the relations of France with this country, 
the entry under the general head of France would enable him 
to follow the thread from the fishermen of Brittany to Maxi- 
milian. 

Thus I have tried to make every part of the apparatus of 
the book reenforce the teacher in his effort to use this History 
as a work to instruct, to train, and to inspire the pupil in the 
acquisition of that great and important task, a knowledge of 
the nation in which he is a freeman and in whose destiny he 
has a part. 



PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY OF PROPER NAMES AND 
TECHNICAL TERMS IN CHAPTER I. 



Cristoforo Colombo (cres-tof'6-r6 
c6-16m'b6. 

Christopher (crTs'to-fer). The word 
means "Christ bearer." There 
is a legend of a strong man who 
carried the child Christ across a 
river, and thence was named 
Christopher, 

Azores (a-zorz'). 

La Rabida (la ra-be'da). 

Pinzon (pen-thon'). 

Palos (pa'los). 

Kha/n (kan). 

Moham'medans. The followers of 
Mohammed, or Mahom'et, an 
Arabian religious leader and sol- 
dier (a.d. 570-G32). 

Santa Maria (san'ta ma-re'a) = 
Holy Mary. 

Car'avel. 

Sargas'so. The Sargasso Sea lies be- 
tween latitude 16° and 38° north 
and longitude 30° and 50° west. 
It is a great floating mass of sea- 
weed drifting about the Atlantic. 

Bahama (bah-ha'ma). 

Hispanio'la = Little Spain. 

Don, from the Latin Dominus, 
" master " or " lord." The title 
in Spain now means scarcely more 
than " Mr." means among us. 

Coat-of-arms. The knights in the 
Middle Ages wore over their 
armor a coat embroidered with 
figures which denoted their fam- 
ily or estate. These coats are no 
longer worn, but the figures con- 
tinue to be used as signs of noble 
birth, and are called coats-of -arms. 



Veragua (va-ra'gwa). 

Amerigo Vespucci (a-ma-ree'go 
ves-poot'chee). His name in its 
Latin form, was Americus Vespu- 
cius. 

Strasburg (stras'booro). 

Vasco da Gama (da ga'ma). 

Toscanelli (tos-ca-nel'li). 

Juan Perez (wan pa'reth). 

Diego (de-a'go). 

Granada (gra-na'Da). 

Cipango (chT-pan'go). 

Behaim (ba'him). 

League (leg) = about three miles. 

Porto Rico (por'to re'ko). 

Ponce de Leon (ponss de lee'on'). 

Pascua Florida (pas'koo-a flor-ee'- 
tha). 

Balbo'a. 

Magellan (in Spanish pronuncia- 
tion, ma-hel-yan', but commonly 
pronounced in English, ma-jel'- 
lan). 

Yucatan (yoo-ka-tan'). 

Hernando Cortez (her-nan'do cor'- 
tez, Spanish kor-tas'). 

Vera Cruz (va'ra kroos), meaning 
" true cross." 

Montezuma (mon-te-zoo'ma). 

Pizarro (pe-zar'r6). 

Fernando de Soto (fer-nan'-do da 
so'to. 

Coronado (ko-ro-na'-Do). 

Canon (kan'yun). A deep defile 
between steep walls or banks, 
usually with a stream flowing at 
the bottom. 

Zuiii (zoon'ye). 

Moqui (mo'ke). 



INTRODUCTION. 

DISOOVEKY AND SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMEKIOA. 



CHAPTER I. 

SPAIN AND AMERICA. 

1. Christopher Columbus. — In Genoa, Italy, somewhere be- 
tween 1436 and 1446,^ was born Cristoforo Colombo. His 
name was written Columbus in Latin, which was then the 
language used by all who read and wrote, and as Christopher 
Columbus he has been known ever since to English-speaking 
people. He left school when he was about fourteen, and was 
sent to sea to finish his education and to learn to command a 
vessel. Like those seamen of his time, who were more than 
common hands, he made a careful study of maps and charts, 
read the stories of travelers, and busied himself with questions 
as to the shape of the earth and its size. 

Learned men had long held the opinion that the world was 
a globe instead of being flat, as the common people and the 
more ignorant supposed. Columbus also believed it to be a 
globe ; he thought it, however, not perfectly round, but pear- 
shaped. He thought it, too, much smaller than it really is. 
By his study of charts and his talks with scholars he decided 
that if he were to sail due west from the Canary Islands, 
he would cross about four thousand miles of ocean and reach 
the eastern shore of Asia. In point of fact, that was not far 
from the distance to the Gulf of Mexico. 

1 The exact date is not known. 

B 1 



2 DISCOVERT AND SETTLEMENT. 

2. Why should he wish to go by Sea to Asia? — Nowadays our 
geographies give us abundant information about Asia ; on our 
maps, every river and mountain range and cape can be traced; 
we know the cities and provinces and separate nations ; and we 
have books which tell us of the people, their mode of life and 
what they produce. It was not so in the time of Columbus. 
Asia was a vast, vague land, at the extreme east of which lay 
the countries which we now know as China, Japan and the East 
Indies, while the ocean flowed beyond.^ 

From these countries caravans came, bringing silk, pearls, 
precious stones, gold, silver, and spices, and Genoa and other 
Italian cities grew rich through commerce ; for their merchants 
sent ships to the eastern coast of the Mediterranean to trade 
with the Asiatics who had crossed the continent. But when 
Columbus was a boy, a great blow had been struck at this 
commerce. 

The Turks, who before had lived in western Asia, swarmed 
into Europe and captured the great city of Constanti- 
nople. They controlled now all the eastern part of 
the Mediterranean, and it became a perilous matter to send 
ships there. Thus it was of the greatest moment to find, 
if possible, some new route to the Indies. The Portuguese, 
under the lead of their prince, Henry the Navigator, had been 
slowly following the coast of Africa.^ 

3. The Struggle of Columbus to get a Hearing Columbus him- 
self went to Lisbon about 1470 and for a while carried on his 
business of map making there and sometimes went to sea with 
Portuguese captains. He knew therefore of the discoveries 

1 The book above all others which gave Columbus and the men of his time 
their notion of Asia was the famous adventures of Marco Polo, written about 
1300. The Old South Leaflet, No. 32, contains Marco Polo's Account of Japan 
and Java. 

2 Prince Henry was filled with zeal for discovery. He built an astro- 
nomical observatory in the southernmost province of Portugal and devoted 
himself to study. From that point he directed a series of voyages from 1418 
to 1463, and after his death the work went forward, until in 1497 Vasco da 
Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope and sailed to India. 



SPAIN AND AMERICA. 3 

along the African coast, but he Avas convinced that there must 
be a shorter route to Asia, and he was confirmed in this belief 
by the advice of a great geographer and map maker, Toscanelli, 
who sent him, in 1474, a map which showed a straight course 
across the Atlantic.^ 

It was one thing to believe in such a route; it was quite 
another to follow it. Map makers could bring forward excel- 
lent arguments 'in support of their belief ; but the only argu- 
ment really convincing was to take a vessel and sail across the 
ocean. Columbus was a poor man, and he must needs per- 
suade some one who had money to join him. For twenty years 
he carried his great purpose in his mind before he could bring 
it to pass. He tried in vain to persuade the magistrates of 
his native city of Genoa to join him. 

He laid his plans before the King of Portugal, who took 
counsel with learned men about him. These men publicly 
ridiculed Columbus as a crazy adventurer; but privately they 
told the king there might be some truth in what Columbus 
said, and the king was base enough to send out a vessel secretly, 
to get all the advantage there might be for himself. But it 
needed a Columbus to carry out the ideas of Columbus. The 
captain of the vessel sent out by the king put out from the 
Azores, but meeting a storm, he was frightened and turned 
back. Columbus heard of what was done and indignantly left 
Portugal. He bent his energies toward persuading Ferdinand 
and Isabella,^ King and Queen of Spain, to give him aid, and 
failing in that, he tried to bring some of the noble families 
to his side; through his brother Bartholomew he made an 
equally vain attempt to interest the English court. 

4. The Triumph of an Idea For seven long years he pushed 

his great enterprise. Poor, ridiculed as a madman, almost 
friendless, Columbus clung to his belief ; and at last his faith 

1 The letters which Toscanelli wrote to Columbus at this time will be found 
in Fiske's Discovery of America, I. 356-362. 

2 The History of Ferdinand and Isabella has been written by W. H. Pres- 
cott ; it is one of the most readable of American histories. 



SPAIN AND AMERICA. 5 

was rewarded. Here one and there one was convinced by his 
persistence and his undaunted confidence. His best friends 
were in the monastery of La Eabida, not far from the seaport 
of Palos. The story goes that when, worn out with his dis- 
appointments in Spain, he was about to set out for England, 
he stopped at the monastery with his son, a boy of eleven 
or twelve.^ Here he met the prior of the monastery, Juan 
Perez, who had been the father confessor of Queen Isabella. 

Perez became greatly interested, and sent to Palos for two 
men of importance : one was a physician who was very curious 
in geographical matters ; the other was a shipowner and cap- 
tain, Martin Pinzon. So deeply did Columbus impress them, 




La Rabida. 

that the prior set off to the camp of the Spanish armies, for 
Spain was then waging war with the Moors, who had long 
before come over into the Spanish peninsula from Africa. 
There he saw Isabella, and persuaded her to send money to 
Columbus and invite him to appear before her. 

5. The Queen of Spain is won over. — The queen and her 
counsellors were so convinced by the arguments of Columbus, 
that she promised to take up the matter in earnest just as 
soon as the Moors had been conquered. On the second day 
of January, 1492, the Moors surrendered Granada,^ and Co- 
lumbus was summoned to the court. 

He went, but not as a suppliant. So filled was he with the 

1 This boy, Diego, afterward became page to Queen Isabella. 

2 One of Washington Irving's most captivating books is The Conquest of 
Granada. Irving was United States minister to Spain, and he wrote with 
the added charm of one who knew the country well. 



6 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT, 

magnitude of his enterprise that he demanded great power and 
honor for himself. The king and queen turned away from this 
dreamer, and Columbus, once more baffled, mounted his mule 
and set off this time for France. But the friends of Columbus, 
who had influence at court, could not bear that Spain should 
lose the glory so nearly in her grasp. They redoubled their 
appeals to the queen, and she, moved by their zeal, sent a mes- 
senger after Columbus. She would herself bear a large part 
of the expense, and an agreement was made between this 
adventurer and the crown of Spain. 

This agreement is an interesting one, for it shows what was 
in the minds of those who made it. Columbus was to have 
for himself and heirs the office of admiral ; he was to be gov- 
ernor general over all the lands and continent he might dis- 
cover or acquire ; he was to reserve for himself one tenth of 
all pearls, precious stones, gold, silver, spices, and all other 
articles of merchandise obtained within his government; he 
might share in the expense of the enterprise with his sover- 
eigns to the extent of one eighth and receive one eighth of the 
profit. Add to this that the king and queen gave Columbus a 
royal letter to the Great Khan, a vaguely known potentate of 
Asia, and that Columbus was to devote the wealth gained to 
fitting out a new crusade for the rescue of the Holy Sepulcher,^ 
and it will be seen that this voyage of discovery was in the 
minds of all a great religious enterprise. 

The one eighth of the expense which Columbus was to bear 
was lent to him by the brothers Pinzon, who were of the 
greatest service ; for it was very difficult to find sailors ready 
to venture out into the Sea of Darkness, as they called the 
unknown Atlantic, and the Pinzons by taking command of 
two of the three vessels of the fleet gave courage to their 
townsmen. The Santa Maria, the largest of the three, was 
commanded by the Admiral, as Columbus was now called. It 
was only about sixty -three feet long, twenty feet broad at the 

1 For four hundred years the Christians of Europe had been engaged in an 
attempt to recover Jerusalem from the Mohammedans. 



SPAIN AND AMERICA, 



widest part, and ten feet deep; indeed, no one of the three 
was larger than a small coasting schooner. In the whole ex- 
pedition were ninety sailors and thirty gentlemen and priests, 
and provisions were carried for a year.^ 

6. The Sailing of the Fleet. — On the third day of August, 
1492, the fleet set sail from Palos and steered for the Canary 
Islands, which were under the control of Spain. By the map 
of Toscanelli, which Columbus is believed to have taken with 
him, if they sailed due west, on the 28th parallel of latitude. 




Copyright by L. Prang & Co. 



Fleet of Columbus. 



they would strike the northern end of Cipango, or Japan. 
One of the caravels, as the vessels were called, lost her 
rudder on the way, and the fleet remained in port a month 
for repairs. On the 6th of September, they left the Canary 
Islands and sailed westward over the unknown seas. 

Terrors of the Voyage. — Ten days later they entered the vast 
tract of seaweed which forms what is known as the Sargasso 
Sea. The sailors were terrified, for they thought they must be 

1 It is interesting to see just what was the fullest knowledge scholars had 
of the globe in the year when Columbus made his first voyage, and this can 
be seen by consulting the globe made by Martin Behaim, of Nuremberg, in 
1492. It is not impossible that Columbus met Behaim in Lisbon, 



8 



DISCOVERT AND SlSTTLEMENT. 



over a reef or in shoal water, but when the vessels sailed on 
without harm, they took fresh heart, and believed themselves 
to be near land. More trustworthy signs of land appeared. 
They caught a crab; they saw birds, among them a pelican, 
which they thought never flew more than sixty miles from 
shore ; there was drizzling rain without wind, and that, they 







The Ocean Side of Behaim's Globe made in 1492. Dotted Lines have been added to 
outline the Position of the then Undiscovered Western Continent. 



said, meant that land was near. Still they sailed on without 
coming to land. 

Then distant clouds looked like solid earth, but vanished as 
the vessels approached. The sailors, who had not the faith 
of Columbus, were dismayed by this wild voyage ; every day 
brought some new alarm or cause for despair; they were 
mocked by the signs of land, when yet there was no land. 



SPAIN AND AMERICA. 9 

So desperate did the men become, that they began to plot 
against Columbus ; and some went so far as to propose to 
throw him into the sea and return to Spain with the story 
that he had fallen overboard. But they feared that they had 
gone beyond the reach of any wind that could carry them 
back to their homes. Columbus used all his arts to govern 
the unruly sailors and discontented gentlemen. Sometimes he 
encouraged them with gentle words, telling them what great 
fame and riches would be theirs if they kept on, or what 
honor they would have in the Church. Sometimes he threat- 
ened them with the displeasure of the king if they disobeyed 
him.* 

7. The End of the Voyage. — Five weeks, to a day, after 
leaving the Canary Islands there were unmistakable signs of 
land. A stick carved by hand was picked up from the water, 
and a branch with berries upon it. A reward in money had 
been offered to the first person who should see land, and all 
were now on the lookout. About ten o'clock at night, Colum- 
bus, standing on one of the castles ^ of his vessel, saw a light 
in the distance. The light moved, and he called two of his 
companions to see it. It may have been a light in a boat. 
Land was near and, at two in the morning, was seen in the 
moonlight by a sailor who was on the lookout in one of the 
other vessels. 

It was Friday, the twelfth day of October, 1492. Columbus, 
in a full suit of armor, carrying in his hand the royal banner 
of Spain, landed upon the island and planted the cross. He 
was attended by officers and gentlemen, and by many of the 
crew ; and as soon as they touched the shore, they all fell upon 
their knees and with tears of joy gave thanks to Almighty 
God. 

1 Columbus feared that if his crew knew how far they were from the land 
they had left, they might become desperate and mutiny ; accordingly, he kept 
two reckonings: one true, for himself, the other a pretended one, which made 
the distance sailed each day less; this was for the officers and crew. 

2 The castle was a structure like a raised deck, built at either end of the 
vessel. Hence the term " forecastle " iu modern ships. 




Christopher Oolumhus 



1 There are many portraits of Columbus, and they do not all 
agree in likeness. One of his companions has described him as tall 
and strong, with a fair, fresh complexion, and bright, piercing eyes. 
In later life, he had long, white, streaming hair. 



miajn Qoow nq '^gSt 'tvBfMdon 




an\ o± saoxvoiAVM jo S3xnoy Hivaxsmii ox <5/py 



•lof pdijfMf^ ni9tr>j 




SPAIN AND AMERICA. 



11 



Return to Spain. —The island which had then been found was 
one of the group known now as the Bahama Islands. Columbus 
embarking again passed other islands, coasted by Cuba, and 
came finally to Hayti, to which he gave the name of Hispaniola. 
He was quite sure that he had reached Japan, and after building 
a fort and leaving some men to hold it, he sailed with his fleet 
back to Spain, taking with him ten of the natives of the land, 
of whom six lived to reach Europe. He carried with him also 
some live parrots and some 



stuffed birds, a 
and trinkets of 



few pearls 
gold. He 



had not much to show, but 
the imagination of men made 
these things into signs of 
vast riches.^ At all events 
Columbus had actually found 
a straight course by sea to 
the Indies. 

He had left the kingdom 
like an adventurer; he was 
received now as a hero. The 
king and queen paid him 
great honor. They gave him 
the title of Don ; they granted 
him a coat-of-arms such as 
only very noble men were permitted to bear; he rode by the 
king's side ; he was served at table as a great man ; and when 
he desired to make a second voyage, every aid was given him. 
Columbus knew that he had thus far visited islands only ; but 
he thought that they were islands lying near the eastern coast 
of Asia. The name Indies was given to the coast ; and since 
these islands had been reached by sailing westward, they came 
to be spoken of as the West Indies, and the people found upon 
them were called Indians. 




Coat-of-Arms of Columbus. 



1 Columbus's Letters to Gabriel Sanchez, describing the First Voyage and 
Discovery, is printed in No. 33 of Old South Leaflets. 



12 DISCOVERY AND ^TTLEMENT. 

8. The Fate of Columbus. — Columbus made not only a second 
voyage, but a third and a fourth. For ten years he was en- 
gaged in exploring the islands, and even set foot on the shore 
of South America. He was convinced that he had not reached 
the mainland of Asia and looked for a strait where the Isth- 
mus of Panama is; but all the time he was endeavoring also 
to find gold mines and to establish the government he had 
been promised. He made many enemies and once was sent 
back to Spain in fetters. He spent his last days in sickness 
and poverty and died in 1506.^ He never fully perceived how 
he had opened the way to a great continent, though some of 
the men of his time were persuaded of it; his own brother 
Bartholomew made a map, recently discovered, which clearly 
shows it. Columbus had the courage and faith and wisdom 
that carried him across the Atlantic, when others only dreamed- 
of such a thing. The men who came after him reaped the 
reward he never gained. He did not even have the honor of 
leaving his name upon the new world. 

That honor fell to another explorer, Amerigo Vespucci, a 
Florentine, who sailed first in the employ of Spain and after- 
ward in that of Portugal. Vespucci made several voyages, 
including one which made known a large part of the Atlantic 
coast of South America, and wrote a letter containing an 
account of his discoveries.^ This letter, in 1507, the year 
after the death of Columbus, was printed at the printing press 
of a college near Strasburg; and the printer, who was a 
geographer, said in his preface : " And the fourth part of the 
world having been discovered by Americus, may well be 
called Amerige (that is, the land of Americus), or America." 
The name America was placed on maps of South America and 
printed in books, and finally was applied to all America. 

1 A descendant of Columbus, the Duke of Veragua, visited the United States 
at the time of the Columbian Exposition in Chicago. The most readable life 
of Columbus is that by Washington Irving; the most learned, and the one 
that brings to light the latest researches, is Winsor's Christopher Columbus. 
A very interesting account may also be read in John Fiske's The Discovery 
of America. 2 See Old South Leaflets, No. M. 



SPAIN AND AMERICA. 13 




Amerigo Vespucci. Born 1451 ) died 1512. 

9. The Line of Demarcation At the time when Columbus 

made his voyages, the great exploring nations of Europe were 
Spain and Portugal. Both countries recognized the pope as 
supreme, and to prevent them from quarreling over their dis- 
coveries, Pope Alexander VI. decreed in 1494 that there should 
be a " Line of Demarcation " drawn north and south on the 
map 100 leagues west of Cape Verde Islands, and that what- 
ever was found to the west of that line should belong to Spain ; 
whatever was found to the east should belong to Portugal. A 
treaty shortly after between Spain and Portugal made it 370 
leagues. By this agreement Brazil fell to the share of Portugal.^ 

10. The Extension of Geographical Knowledge. — Prom the 
islands where the Spaniards established government they 

1 Brazil became independent of Portugal in 1822, when it became the 
Empire. of Brazil; the empire was overthrown in 1889 and a republic, the 
United States of Brazil, set up in 1891. 



14 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT, 

made their way to the neighboring mainland. One of the 
governors of Porto Rico, Ponce de Leon, when making a 
voyage, touched the coast of the continent somewhere oppo- 
site the Bahamas. It was Easter Sunday when he first saw 
the land. The Spaniards call that day Pascua Florida, 

^^^. q ' or " Flowery Easter " ; and so he named the country 

Florida. Like others, he was looking for what he 

had been told he should find in Asia, and his special desire 

was to find the fountain of youth, the waters of which made 

old men young again. 

Ponce de Leon was the first Spaniard, apparently, to land 
on the soil of what is now the United States, and that was 
twenty years after the first voyage of Columbus. There were 
two other men, near the same time, who did much to open the 
eyes of the world to the fact that America was not a part of 
the continent of Asia. One was Balboa, who was at the head 
of a company of men at Panama. The natives made out to tell 
him of another sea lying beyond the mountains, and he set 
forth with his men to find it. He fought his way through 
hostile tribes and at last saw before him a height from which, 
his Indian guides told him, he could look upon the sea. He 
bade his men remain behind, and went alone to the summit. 
There he stood and beheld the broad Pacific, the first man 
from Europe to see that sight.^ 

Something of the extent of this newly discovered ocean was 
learned when Magellan, a Portuguese captain in the service of 
Spain, boldly sought to follow the coast of South America, as 
others had followed that of Africa. He passed along the east- 
ern coast until he came to the strait now known by his name. 
He followed this strait and sailed upon the great 
■ ocean, crossing it and making his way to the East 
Indies. The islands in this archipelago had already been 
reached by Portuguese sailing eastward. This was the first 
time they had been reached by vessels sailing westward. 

1 There is a line in Keats's famous sonnet, "On first looking into Chap- 
man's Homer," which is drawn from this incident. 



SPAIN AND AMERICA. 16 

Magellan himself was killed on one of the islands, but his 
companions kept on to Spain round the Cape of Good Hope. 
Thus men had at last sailed round the world. After this there 
was no longer any doubt that the world was a globe. 

11. The Conquest of Mexico. — The Spaniards, as they pushed 
their explorations about the Gulf of Mexico, were always on 
the lookout for gold and silver, and they expected to come 
upon great cities and powerful kings. It is but a short dis- 
tance from the western extremity of the island of Cuba to 
Yucatan upon the mainland. The first Spaniards who crossed 
the channel brought back word that they had found men 
dressed better than those on the islands, and living in buildings 
made of stone and mortar, and in every way more civilized. 

Cortez. — The governor of Cuba thereupon sent an explor- 
ing expedition under command of his secretary, Hernando Cor- 
tez, who sailed along the coast until he came to a 
favorable point, where he established a fortified camp, 
and named the place Vera Cruz. From this point he marched 
his army, less than five hundred in number, into the heart of 
Mexico. Sometimes he made friends of the natives ; some- 
times he fought them. He got possession finally of the most 
important chieftain, Montezuma, and, after a short period, 
Mexico, with its rich mines, became a Spanish province. 

Pizarro. — Another Spaniard, Pizarro, conquered Peru, and all 
the western coast of South America, as well as Central America, 
came under the control of Spain. A great many Spaniards came 
over to America to make their fortunes in these countries.^ 

12. Discovery of the Mississippi by De Soto. — Meanwhile the 
attempt to get control of that part of the country bordering on 
the Gulf of Mexico now occupied by our Southern States was 
less successful. Pernando de Soto, a companion of Pizarro, 
determined to conquer Florida, as all this country was then 

1 Prescott's two books, The Conquest of Mexico and 21ie Conquest of Peru, 
give brilliant accounts of the Spanish occupation. A novel, The Fair God, by 
General Lew Wallace, author of Ben Hur, states the traditions of Mexico 
under Montezuma. One of Henty's stories, also, By Right of Conquest^ is 
based on Cortez's expedition. 



16 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 

called, and set out with a great expedition. The march was a 

continual fight with savage tribes, and the army dwindled 

away, but De Soto pushed on until he came to a point 

^ not far from where the city of Memphis now stands;' 
there he saw the great river Mississippi, which lay across his 
path. 

But nothing came at the time of this discovery. De Soto 
died and was buried in the river; the gaunt, famished rem- 
nant of his party straggled back to the coast.^ A later 
expedition headed by Coronado,^ has a special interest for 
Americans to-day, because it penetrated what is now New 
Mexico and Arizona; and the chronicle gives an account of 
the Grand Caiion of the Colorado Eiver, and of the strange 
cliff dwellings of the Zuni and Moqui Indians, half-civilized 
tribes that have remained with little change in the same region 
to this day.^ 

13. The Spaniards and the Native Americans The Spaniards 

thus had slight hold on the country which now forms our Gulf 
States, though they had made one small settlement in Florida, 

_ ^- of which the only remaining sign is St. Augustine ; 
but they were securely established in Mexico, Central 
America, the western part of South America, as well as in 
Cuba and other islands. By the force of a superior race, a 
comparatively small number of Europeans kept under their 
dominion the natives of these regions. The Indians submitted 
to the Spaniards, obeyed their laws, and adopted their religion. 
They tilled the ground, herded cattle, and worked in the mines. 
They were not slaves in name, and many laws were made to 
prevent them from being sold into slavery ; nevertheless they 
were in one form or other bound in service. 

1 See "The Death of De Soto," from the Narrative of a Gentleman of 
Elvas, in Old South Leaflets, No. 36. 

2 See Coronado's Journey to New Mexico and the Great Plains, 1540-42, 
No. 13 of American History Leaflets. 

3 A lively account of these Indians was written by Mr. Gushing, who lived 
long with them. It may he found in The Century Magazine for December^ 
1882, February and May, 1883. 



SPAIN AND AMERICA. 



17 









t 



lint*, ilii 



St. Augustine. 



Gradually the Spaniards in- 
termarried with the Indians, 
and the present race in Mex- 
ico, Central America, and 
South America is largely a 
mixed race. To-day, though 
Spain has lost all her posses- 
Spanish Coat-of- sions in the Western Continent, the Spanish lan- 
guage may be heard from the northern part of 
Mexico to the southern extremity of South America; and 
Spanish customs and laws, as well as the religion of Spain, 
mark the hold which Spain once held in the Western world. 



Old G-ateway, 
Fort San Marco. 



QUESTIONS. 

What was the birthplace of Columbus? What was his occupation 
after he left school ? What did he and others of that time think of the 
shape and size of the world ? How did Columbus propose to reach Asia ? 
Hjw far off did he think Asia to be by water? What book gave the 
fullest account of Asia in early times? What two ways of going to 
c 



18 BISCOVEBY AN I) •SETTLEMENT, 

India by water were possible ? What nation took the lead in the route 
round Africa? Name the great Portuguese promoter of exploration. 
Who finally rounded the Cape of Good Hope ? Whom did Columbus 
seek to interest in his plan ? What trick was played upon Columbus 
in Portugal, and how did it turn out ? Tell the story of Columbus after 
he left Portugal. Who were the best friends of Columbus ? What were 
the terms of the contract between Ferdinand and Isabella and Columbus ? 
How did Columbus intend to use the wealth he should gain ? Describe 
the fleet of which Columbus was admiral. When did it sail, and where 
did it direct its course ? Point out on the map the location of the Sar- 
gasso Sea. What signs of land were seen ? How did Columbus encour- 
age his men? Describe the discovery of land, and the ceremony of 
taking possession. Describe his reception on his return to Spain. How 
many voyages did Columbus make ? Did he see the mainland of Amer- 
ica ? What is the story connected with the naming of the New World ? 
What was the Line of Demarcation ? What is the origin of the name 
Florida ? Relate the story of Balboa. When was the first voyage round 
the world made ? Who first of Europeans saw the Mississippi River, 
and at what point ? What is left to Spain of her American possessions ? 

SEARCH QUESTIONS. 

What is the meaning of the name Mediterranean Sea ? What great 
empire once controlled it wholly ? What is now the great Mediterranean 
of the world ? Columbus thought it four thousand miles from the west- 
ern coast of Europe to the eastern coast of Asia ; if there had been no 
American continent in the way, how far would it have been, sailing due 
west from Palos ? Is the Holy Sepulcher still in the hands of Moham- 
medans ? Mention some of the places and geographical points in America 
which owe their name to Columbus. Columbus looked for an opening in 
the Isthmus of Panama that he might push on to China and India ; how 
does the modern world hope to accomplish the same purpose ? 

SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. 

Compositions : 

Boyhood days of Columbus. 

Influences that led Columbus to make his voyage. 

An imaginary letter from the sailor on the lookout. 

Debates : 

Besolved, That Columbus was justified in deceiving his companions. 
Besolvedi That this continent should be called Columbia. 



CHAPTER II. 

THE NATIVES OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Pueblo (pweb'lo). 
Wigwam (wig' worn). 
Canoe (ka-noo'). 



Sa'chem. 

Mobilians (mo-bil'yanz). 

Palisade (pal-i-sad'). 



14. The more Civilized Peoples When the Spanish took 

possession of Mexico and Central America, they found a peo- 
ple more civilized than the natives of the West India islands ; 
they found also remains of a still earlier civilization. We 
find to-day, in New Mexico and Arizona, a remnant of the 
more civilized race of Pueblo Indians^ in the Cliff Dwellers, 
who cultivate fields which they have learned to irrigate, and 
weave and make pottery which shows a sense of beauty. 

In the Mississippi Valley, and especially in the valley of the 
Ohio, are found to-day great mounds, some of them shaped like 
animals. There is one in Loudon, Adams County, Ohio, known 
as the Serpent Mound.^ These mounds have been opened, and 
a great many domestic utensils and what are thought to be 
burial urns have been taken out.^ Ashes have been found in 
them, as if great fires had been built 5 but whether these 
mounds were burial places, or places of worship, or sites for 
rude houses, cannot always be known. At first there was a 

1 The Pueblo Indians lived in communities on the plains ; for defense they 
climbed to natural shelves along the sides of cliffs ; hence the name. 

2 This mound and the land about it constitute a park of seventy-five acres 
owned by the Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass. See a full account in 
The Century Magazine, March, April, 1890. 

3 Squier's Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley, though printed 
many years ago, is the most satisfactory account in general of the mounds. 
See also Short's Americans of Antiquity, and The Mounds of the Mississippi 
Valley, by Lucien Carr, Smithsonian Report for 1891. 

19 



20 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 

disposition to regard the people who built these mounds as a 
distinct race, but many scholars now regard them as the ances- 
tors of the tribes found by Europeans when they first visited the 
country between the Mississippi River and the Alleghanies. 

15. The Indians on the Atlantic Coast The Indians living 

between the Atlantic coast and the Mississippi Valley were 
cinnamon-colored, had high cheek bones, long, coarse, black 




The So-called House of the Dwarf.^ 

hair, and small, black eyes. They lived upon the fruit they 
found, the fish they caught, the animals they killed; some 

1 This is one of a great many buildings, the ruins of which may be seen to- 
day in Yucatan and Honduras, often in the depths of forests and overgrown 
with vegetation. Like a number, it is a temple crowning a pyramid. This 
pyramid has a very steep slope, about one hundred feet in height, and is 
reached by a succession of steps. The temple, which is richly ornamented, 
consists of two parts, one reared on the summit, the other looking like a 
chapel lower down. The cut is taken from Charnay's Ancient Cities of the 
Neio World, a book which describes the ruins in Central America as seen in 
1880. See also Short's Americans of Antiquity. 



THE NATIVES OF NORTH AMERICA, 



21 




Various Scenes in Indian Life : Cliff Dwelling. -War Dance. - Exposure of the 
Dead. — Travel by "Water. — Chief's Head. 

lived upon maize or Indian corn which they planted. If every- 
thing else failed, they could dig roots and eat them. They 
did not look forward very far, however, so that there were 
times when they suffered severely from want of food. 



22 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 

They used bows and arrows in hunting. The arrows had flint 
heads, and their hatchets were made out of flint. They cooked 
their food by roasting it over a fire, or stewing it in unglazed 
earthenware pots. But since these pots would have been 
cracked in a fire, they heated the water by putting in red- 
hot stones. They wore as little clothing as they could in 
warm weather, and when winter came, they dressed them- 
selves in skins from the animals which they killed. On great 
occasions they used ornaments of claws and feathers. When 
they went to war, they smeared themselves with colored clay. 
Their houses were made by driving poles into the ground in 
a circle and drawing their tops together. Then they covered 
the poles with bark or skins, and the wigwam' as it was called, 
was finished. Inside there was a hole in the ground for a 
fire; and the family slept on skins or bushes. The women, 
who were called squaws, did the work, not only of cooking, 
but of planting the corn and gathering it, of dressing the skins, 
and of making the wigwams. They bore the burdens when 
moving from one place to another. Until Europeans came, 
there were no horses in the country. 

The Buffalo. — As the game upon which they depended moved 
about the country, so the Indians roved in search of it. The 

buffalo was an animal every 
part of which the Indian used. 
He cooked or dried the flesh, 
for food. He tanned or other- 
wise dressed the skin and used 
it for his bed, and he cut it up 
for ropes and cords. The mar- 
row served for fat. The sinews 
■o g. I made bowstrings. The hair was 

twisted into ropes and halters, 
and spun and woven into a coarse cloth; the bones made war 
clubs, and the shoulder blades were used for hoes. They made 
canoes from the bark of trees, and paddled along the rivers 
and lakes. By looking at a map which has no State lines 




THE NATIVES OF NORTH AMERICA. 23 

upon it, one can see what a network of waterways covers the 
country now occupied by the United States. 

Their Country. — Living thus out of doors, the Indians learned 
the ways of bird and beast. They became swift of foot, quick of 
eye, cunning and ready. They learned to endure hardships ; to 
go a long while without food. They could find their way through 
the Avoods by signs which white people never saw. They had 
names for all the places which they visited. Every waterfall, 
river, lake, mountain, valley, and cape was named by them, and 
very many of these names were taken up by white settlers 
and remain to this day. Some of the names of our States are 
Indian names. A number of Indians living together and hunt- 
ing together formed a tribe, and these tribes had their own 
names. Each tribe had a sachem, who was chief; and the 
right to be chief often continued in the same family. But if 
a sachem lost the respect of the tribe, the warriors would 
choose another, who was usually one of his relatives. 

16. The Main Groups of Indians. — There were three principal 
groups of Indian tribes east of the Mississippi. In the north 
the most powerful were those which went by the name of the 
Iroquois. They were made up of distinct tribes, at first five, 
afterward six, banded together in a league, with laws and gov- 
ernment.^ 

The Iroquois had their home within the borders of what 
is now the State of New York, but they also drove out the 
tribes living in the region south of Lakes Erie and Ontario, 
and on the peninsula east of Lake Huron. The Algonquins, 
the other great northern group, covered nearly all the rest of 
the country east of the Mississippi and north of what is now 
North Carolina. In the south were the Mobilians, comprising 
Creeks, Choctaws, and Chickasaws. These various groups had 
each its ow^n language and customs. War was constantly car- 
ried on between the Iroquois and the Algonquins. They did 
not meet each other in the open field. The Indian mode of 

1 For this reason they are sometimes called the Five Nations or the Six 
Nations. 



24 DISCOVERY AND ^SETTLEMENT. 

warfare was to steal through the woods and come suddenly at 
night upon a camp of the enemy. 

17. The Traits in Common. — Though the tribes differed from 
one another, all the Indians were in some points alike. They 
were brave, but they were also treacherous. They never for- 
gave an injury. They could bear hunger and torture in silence, 
but they were cruel in the treatment of their captives. They 
were a silent race, but often in their councils some of their 
number would be very eloquent. They had many legends 
about the world in which they lived, and they believed in 
spirits who lived around them in the water and the air. In 
each tribe there were "medicine men" so called, who were 
regarded as magicians. The brave Indian believed that after 
death he would go to the Happy Hunting Grounds. It is not 
possible to say how many Indians there were when Europeans 
first came to this continent. It is supposed that, through wars 
with one another and with the whites, the race has been fast 
disappearing; but it is known that during the past thirty 
years the number has increased.^ 

1 A comprehensive book on the Indians is The Red Man and the White 
Man, by George E. Ellis. Parkman's The Oregon Trail gives an interesting 
account of his life among the Indians. The best stories in which Indians 
figure largely are Cooper's Leatherstocklng Tales. The most famous poem 
relating to the Indians is Longfellow's Hiawatha. 

QUESTIONS. 

Name the three classes of natives who have left monuments or other 
signs of partial civilization. What was the appearance of the Indians 
on the Atlantic coast ? What was their food ? How were they housed ? 
Describe the uses to which the buffalo was put ? What was their mode 
of life ? Describe the tribal life. Locate the Iroquois ; the Algonquins ; 
the Creeks, Choctaws, and Chickasaws. What were their religious 
ideas ? Name some of the characteristics of the race. 

SEARCH QUESTIONS. 

Name some of the more considerable mounds. Name the rivers, 
mountains, lakes, and towns in your State which have Indian names. 



THE NATIVES OF NORTH AMERICA. 25 

Where are some of the tribes named in this chapter still to be found ? 
Name some poems with Indian characters. Which of the States have 
Indian names ? 

SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. 

Compositions : 

An account of explorations in Central America. 

An account of the Zunis. 

Description of a mound. 

The story of an Indian from childhood till he becomes a warrior. 

An account of some Indians I once saw. 

Indian characteristics gathered from Hiawatha. 

Debates : 

'Resolved, That the Indian was better off before the white man came 
to America. 

Resolved, That Indian names are better for places in America than 
European names. 

Resolved, That the mound builders were identical with the American 
Indians. 

Resolved, That the settlers were justified in taking the land from the 
Indians without paying for it. 

Resolved, That the Indian can be civilized. 



CHAPTER III. 



THE FRENCH, THE DUTCH, AND THE SWEDES. 



Newfoundland (nu 'fund-land'). 
The name was first applied to 
all the countries in the northeast 
discovered by the first English 
voyagers, but afterward was used 
only for the island which con- 
tinues to be so called. 

Nova Scotia (no'va sko'shia) was 
so named, later, because of Scotch 
settlers. The words are Latin for 
New Scotland. 

Banks. Shoals in the sea, near the 
coast. 

Breton (bret'on). 

Verrazano (ver-ra-tsa'no). 

Labrador (lab'ra-dor). 

Jacques Cartier (zhak kar-tya'). 

C h a 1 e u r (sha-loor') . From a 
French word meaning "heat." 

Neth'erlands. Originally both Hol- 
land and Belgium, The name 
signified "lowlands." 

Huguenot (hu'ge-not), 

Champlain (sham-plan' ). 

DeMonts (deh mon'). 

Acadie (a-ka-de'). The English 
form is Aca'dia. The Indian 
form from which the name is 
derived appears in the ending 
quoddy, a kind of fish, — as Pas- 
samaquoddy. 



St. Croix (sant kroi'). 

Port Roy'al. The king's harbor. 

Ignatius Loyola (ig-na'shus loi-5' 
la), 1491-1566. 

Iroquois (ir-6-kwoi'). 

Ottawa (6t'ta-wa). 

Jean Nicolet (zhan ne-ko-la'). 

Joliet. The town in Illinois named 
from the explorer has been angli- 
cized to Jo'le-6t. 

Marquette ( niar-ket' ) . 

Arkansas (ar'kan-sa'). 

Kaskaskia (kS,s-kas'ki-a). 

Chevalier de la Salle (shev'a-ler' 
deh la sal'). The title chevalier 
corresponds in general to the 
English "knight," and means, 
literally, a rider of horses. 

La Chine (la shen', China). 

Hennepin (hen'e-pin). 

Miami (mi-am'i). 

Louis (loo-ee'). But the English 
form "Lewis," is frequently 
used. 

D'Iberville (de-ber-veel'). 

Holland is a short form of " Hollow 
land," or "low land." 

Henry Hudson. The Dutch called 
him Hendrik Hudson. 

Minuit (min'ne-wit). 

Christina (kris-te'na). 



18. The Breton Fishermen make their Way to America While 

the Spaniards were taking possession of the central and south- 
ern parts of America, other European peoples were making 

26 



THE FRENCH, THE DUTCH, AND THE SWEDES. 27 

acquaintance with the more northern parts. At this time, by the 
rules of the Church, nearly one third of the days in the year 
were fast days, on which no meat could be eaten ; and in conse- 
quence the fisheries had become of great importance. On both 
sides of the English Channel, and on the western coast of France, 
a large part of the population was engaged in this business. 
The fishing grounds near at hand became so exhausted that the 
hardy fishermen ventured farther each year, until at last they 
came to the coasts of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia and 
fished on the Banks, which still furnish a yearly harvest to 
thousands of fishermen; but they troubled themselves very 
little about the land that lay near. 

A few captains, indeed, explored the coast. Cape Breton 
owes its name to the fishermen from the Breton country in 
France. When the French king resolved to have a share in 
the New World, these fishermen became his best helpers. The 
explorers whom he sent out naturally gathered their crews in 
the Breton ports, and found that the men already knew some- 
thing of the coast. 

19. The Voyages of Verrazano and Cartier Verrazano, an 

Italian sailor, was sent out by Francis L, King of France. He 
reached the American coast near what is now called Cape 
Fear, and cruised northward, visiting probably the 
bay of New York and Narragansett Bay.^ Like other 
explorers, he was searching for a passage to India. His 
voyage convinced him that the land which he had visited 
was a part of a great continent; and when he took into ac- 
count the southern voyages of the Spaniards and Portuguese, 
he came to the belief that a short passage to India was im- 
possible, since there must be land all the way from the Strait 
of Magellan to Labrador. 

Cartier. — The French were eager to know more of the new 
country, but wars followed, and it was ten years before the king 
took further action. Then he sent two ships to America under 

1 Vej-razano's Voyage is the title of No. 17 of Old South Leaflets. It is a 
translation of his account. 



28 



DISCOVERT AND SETTLEMENT, 



the command of Jacques C artier, to make further explorations, 
and still, if possible, to find a way to India. Cartier cruised 
about the Gulf of St. Lawrence, to which he gave that 
' name. He entered a bay, which, on account of the 
heat, he named the Bay of Chaleur. There he landed and 
took possession of the country in the name of the King of 
France. This ceremony consisted in setting up a cross and 
fastening upon it the king's coat-of-arms. The next year he 




St. Lawrence River and Gulf. 

returned and sailed up the St. Lawrence, saw the great rock 
on which Quebec now stands, and pushed on as far as to where 
is now the city of Montreal. 

20. Champlain's Discoveries. — An attempt was made by the 
Huguenots, as those Frenchmen were called who rebelled 
against the authority of the Pope, to make a settlement in 
Florida, but it failed, and the seat of the most active French 
enterprise was upon the borders of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 
Cartier had taken possession of the country in the name of 



THE FRENCH, THE BUTCH, AND THE SWEDES. 29 



the King of France, but its real occupation was by the hardy 
men who fished in the waters of the Gulf, and sometimes 
carried back to Europe furs and skins which they obtained 
from the natives. The fur trade at 
last began to tempt adventurers and 
explorers. The greatest of these ex- 
plorers was a French gentleman, Sam- 
uel de Champlain, who made his first 
voyage to Canada in 1603. He as- 
cended the St. Lawrence River as far 
as the site of Montreal, and carried 
back to France maps of the country 
which he had seen, and many inter- 
esting notes concerning the people, 
animals, and plants. 

Acadie. — The next year a Huguenot, 
De Monts, who was in favor at court, 
received authority to plant a colony in 
Acadie, the name given to the country 
claimed by the French, extend- 
ing from the Delaware Eiver 
to the St. Lawrence. De Monts took 
Champlain with him, and established 
a fur-trading post on an island at the 
mouth of the St. Croix River, but after- 
wards removed it across the Bay of 
Fundy to. the Annapolis Basin and 
named the place Port Royal. (See 
map, p. 94.) 

Champlain was persuaded that the 
banks of the river St. Lawrence offered the best site for a colony, 
and four years later he ascended the river again and 
founded Quebec, which became the center of trade, of 
missions, and of military operations. From this point he made 
bold excursions into the wilderness. The most important of 
his associates were not soldiers or fur traders, but priests. 



1604. 




Explorations of Champlain 
and Hndson. 



1608. 



30 DISCOVEBT AND ^TTLEMENT, 

21. The Jesuits. — During the religious conflicts which had 
stirred Europe, a Spanish soldier, Ignatius Loyola, had founded 
the Society of Jesus, or Jesuits, who claimed to be special 
champions of the Pope. They were like soldiers in an army, 
bound to one another and to their officers by the strictest rules 
and by loyalty to their order. The Jesuits had more than a 
military courage and zeal. They were missionaries of the 
faith, and were among the first to plunge into the wilderness 
of Canada. They went there to convert the savage Indian, 
and endured hardships which no common soldier would have 
had the courage to meet.^ 

22. The French in their Relation with the Indians — The 
Indian of the north was a stern, silent man, who knew the 
rigors of a northern winter, and the perils of the wilderness. 
His highest idea of courage was to suffer without complaining. 
When, therefore, the Jesuits and other priests came without 
weapons, shared the life of the Indians, and were ready to go 
beyond their bravest men in endurance, the Indians learned to 
respect the newcomers, and in many cases to submit to them 
and accept the religion which they taught. The French sol- 
diers also were willing to live much as the Indians did, and 
thus easily made friends with them. The Indian tribes were 
often at war with one another ; and the French, by taking sides 
with a tribe and going with it to fight its enemies, won it over 
to strong friendship. 

The most powerful people were the Iroquois. On the north- 
ern lakes and on the Ottawa Kiver were their bitter enemies, 
the Hurons and Algonquins, and these persuaded Champlain 
to join them in an attack upon the Iroquois. Cham- 
plain, like other explorers of his day, was bent on 
finding a way to China ; and since the tribes at war with the 
Iroquois could be of most service to him, he formed an alliance 

1 Parkman's Pioneers of France in the Neio World and The Jesuits in North 
America give very interesting accounts of these early French enterprises. 
The Jesuits sent home letters detailing their experiences. These Relations, as 
they were called, have been translated and published in a series of volumes. 



THE FRENCH, THE DUTCH, AND THE SWEDES. 31 

witli them. He gained a victory over the Iroquois, which 
made them lasting enemies of the French, but he returned after 
discovering the lake which bears his name. 

23. Exploration of the Great West. — The St. Lawrence af- 
forded a way into the interior, and as early as 1G15 Cham- 
plain reached Lake Huron with the flag of France ; and on the 
map which he drew, is shown in the vague region beyond, the 
home of a people whom he describes as "a nation where there 
is a quantity of buffalo." This land was the great prairie 
where were villages of the Illinois tribe of Indians. As gov- 
ernor of New France, he sent his interpreter, Jean Nicolet, in 
1634 on a tour of exploration, and Nicolet set foot on what is 
now the soil of Michigan and also penetrated Green Bay in 
Wisconsin. Champlain died shortly after, and no great leader 
of the French took advantage of Nicolet's report. 

Joliet and Marquette. — It was not till 1672 that Louis Joliet, 
born and bred at Quebec and familiar with the Great Lakes, 
was sent out to discover the mouth of the great river of which 
many reports had come from the Indians. This was the Mis- 
sissippi, and no one knew whether it flowed into the South Sea, 
as the Pacific Ocean was called, the Gulf of California, or the 
Gulf of Mexico. Joliet's companion was the priest Marquette. 

They descended the Wisconsin River, already known, to the 
Mississippi, visited some Illinois villages, and kept on as far 
as the mouth of the Arkansas Eiver. Then fearing to fall into 
the hands of the Spaniards, they returned, and leaving the 
Mississippi at the Illinois Eiver, ascended that river, and at 
last reached Lake Michigan. They had made it clear that the 
Mississippi flowed into the Gulf of Mexico. Marquette after- 
ward established a mission amongst the Illinois Indians at 
Kaskaskia, and spent a winter within the limits of the present 
city of Chicago.i 

1 In Marquette's journal of the winter of 1674-75, the name of an impor- 
tant Indian is preserved in Chachagou-ession, a man much esteemed, he says, 
partly because he concerned himself with trade. It is supposed that the name 
" Chicago " was adopted from this name. 



32 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT, 

24. La Salle and his Adventures. — Thus the discoverer and 
the missionary were the pioneers in pushing forward the boun- 
daries of New France, and they were followed by men who more 
distinctly took possession of the new lands in the name of the 
King of France. Chiefest of these was the Chevalier de la Salle. 

,^^^ He came out to Canada to seek his fortune, and was 
granted a tract of land a few miles beyond Montreal. 
There he gathered men about him, and made a fortified settle- 
ment, as a center of the fur trade. The name given to the 
place, La Chine, shows what was on La Salle's mind ; he was 
filled with a desire to find the South Sea, and he proposed to 
conquer the country on the way and bring it under the sover- 
eignty of France. 

La Salle built a strongly fortified post on Lake Ontario, 
near the present town of Kingston. This was to be the start- 
ing point of his expeditions ; and from here, in 1678, he made' 
the first of a series of journeys which lasted nearly ten years. 
One of the parties sent out by him, a friar, Louis Hennepin, 
was the first to see and describe the Falls of Niagara. La 
Salle built vessels and explored Lakes Erie, Huron, and Michi- 
gan. He built forts on Lake Ontario, on Niagara Eiver, and on 
the Illinois River where Peoria now stands, meaning by the 
chain of forts to hold the land for France. 

The Mississippi Valley taken Possession of for France. — At 
last La Salle made the great journey for which he had been 
planning. With a party of Frenchmen and Indians ^ he set out 
from Fort Miami, on the Maumee River. He carried 
his canoes from stream to stream, until he reached 
the Mississippi and floated down its current. He passed from 
winter into spring, and at every stage of his progress he felt 
his great dreams to be turning into realities. He came among 
people who had never seen a white man. Everywhere he took 

1 It is an interesting fact that these Indians were mainly Mohicans who 
had been driven west by the results of King Philip's War (see Section 48, 
below) , and that it was New England Indians who thus voyaged with him to 
the Gulf of Mexico. 



THE FRENCH, THE DUTCH, AND THE SWEDES. 33 

possession of tlie country in the name of Louis XIV., King of 
France, while the Indians looked on in ignorant wonder. 

Louisiana. — Upon the marshy borders of the Delta, La Salle 
formally claimed for his master the vast territory drained by 
the Mississippi and its tributaries, and named it Louisiana. It 
was now the king's by title, and he meant to make it 
the actual property of France. He retraced his course, 
and laid plans for a fortified settlement upon a great rock on 
the Illinois Eiver. Here he meant to have a trading post, and 
a defense against hostile Indians. It was to be one of the links 
in a great chain of fortified posts between the Lakes and the 
Gulf. He named the place Fort St. Louis, but it is now known 
as Starved Rock. 

La Salle returns to France. — He hastened back to France, 
where his wonderful journey made him a hero. A man who 
could add an empire to France was not likely to be denied 
what he asked for. With two great rivers under their control, 
the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi, the French would have 
the whole vast interior of the continent in their hands. When, 
therefore. La Salle laid before the king his wish to build a fort 
at the mouth of the Mississippi, and establish a colony there, 
the king at once aided him and placed four ships under his 
command. The king was more ready to do this because he 
was at war with Spain, and hoped by this means to attack the 
Spanish possessions in America. 

The Failure of La Salle's Plans. — The expedition sailed with 
great expectations, but failed miserably, and La Salle 
himself was treacherously killed, when trying to 
make his way to Canada. His discoveries, however, led the 
French to send out an expedition under D'Iberville, 
and to make a settlement near the mouth of the 
Mississippi. A communication was kept up with Canada by 
means of the great river. Military posts were planted at 
intervals along the way. There were settlements about them, 
to which the Indians came to trade. At each, also, was a mis- 
sion of the Church. Indeed, the priest often came before the 



34 DISCOVERY AND ^SETTLEMENT. 

soldier, and the mission house and chapel rose before the 
barracks.^ 

25. The Dutch in Holland While the French were thus 

finding their way into the interior of the continent, by means 
of the great rivers and lakes, another European people were 
also taking advantage of a water highway. The uSTetherlands 
had revolted from Spanish rule and established a vigorous 
Protestant state, known as the Dutch Republic. The land 

which it occupied, now called Holland, was protected 
from the ocean by great dikes, and crossed by a net- 
work of canals which connected with arms of the sea and with 
navigable rivers. The land lying between the canals was very 
rich, and was cultivated with great industry ; the canals were 
the roadways for boats which plied between different parts of the 
country, and made all the towns busy with trade and commerce.^ 
Dutch Enterprise. — The Dutch were also famous fishermen. 
Their vessels swarmed about the coast and in the North Sea ; 
and, since this sea was a dangerous one, the Dutch sailors became 
brave and daring, skillful in managing their vessels and in act- 
ing as pilots. They were the merchants for all the neighboring 
countries, carrying their vessels into the ports and rivers of 
Europe, and sending out fleets to the East Indies, whence they 
brought back spices and other .products of the tropics. Their 
enterprise and courage made the Dutch, with their little terri- 
tory, able to resist the power of the great kingdom of Spain. 

26. Henry Hudson and the New Netherland Company In con- 
sequence of this trade and industry, great cities sprang up in 
Holland. The merchants formed companies, the better to 
carry on their trade ; of these one of the most important was 
the East India Company, which was very anxious to find a 

1 See Parkman's La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West. Nos. 5 
and 6 of Historical Classic Readings are very pertinent here. 

-^ A useful little boolt, and one which gives an idea of the Dutch connection 
with America, is Brave Little Holland, and what she has taught us, by W. E. 
Griffis. A most interesting picture of life in Holland is to be found in Mrs. 
Dodge's bright story, Hans Brinker, or the Silver Skates, as also in her later 
book, The Land of Pluck. 



THE FRENCH, THE BUTCH, AND THE SIVEDES. 35 

shorter route to the East Indies than by the long and perilous 
passage round the Cape of Good Hope. In 1G09 they engaged 
an English captain, Henry Hudson, to find such a passage. 
He first tried the northeastern route ; but when he was blocked 
by the ice, he turned back, and determined to find some open- 
ing in the land which lay to the west. 

Hudson ascends the North River. — He crossed the Atlantic, 
and came upon the opening which is now the harbor of New 
York- He discovered the great river flowing into it, and sailed 
slowly up its stream in his ship, the Half Moon. He went to 
the head of navigation, and then sent out parties to explore. 
They returned with reports which showed that the river les- 
sened as they went up higher, and he sailed down the river 
again, crossed the Atlantic and entered an English port. 

Hudson sent to the East India Company at Amsterdam an 
account of what he had discovered ; but the English would not 
let him return to Holland. He sailed, again the next year for 
an English company, and discovered a great bay in the frozen 
north. The river and the bay both bear his name, though the 
river has also always been known as the North Eiver. 

First Dutch Settlements. — The East India Company was dis- 
appointed that Hudson had not found a new route to India, and 
paid little attention to his discovery of a great river and a noble 
country. Some Amsterdam merchants, however, saw an oppor- 
tunity for trade, and sent out vessels to obtain furs, a com- 
modity very much in demand in the cold northern countries of 
Europe. The traders established themselves at the mouth of 
the Hudson River, on the island which was called by the 
Indians Manhattan. 

They made explorations up and down the coast, and soon 
found how rich the country was, and how easy it was to obtain 
valuable furs in exchange for a few prltry trinkets. 
A company was formed, called the New Netherland 
Company, which had the sole right for three years 
to occupy this territory and trade there. It erected forts on 
Manhattan Island, and on the site of Albany, then called 



DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT, 



Fort Orange,^ and gave the name of New Netherland to the 
country.^ 

27. The West India Company. — When the rights of the com- 
pany ceased, a new and" more powerful company was formed 
in Holland in 1621, called the West India Company, with full 
control of New Netherland. It was a trading company like 

the others, but it was intended also to 
dispute the Spanish power in America. 
The Dutch captains, like the English, 
found a profitable business in capturing 
Spanish vessels. The West India Com- 
pany encouraged people to settle on its 
lands ; it explored the North Kiver and 
the South River, now known as the 
Delaware; and villages grew up about 
Fort Orange, and at New Amsterdam, 
as the Dutch called the settlement on 
Manhattan Island. 

Patroons. — In order to induce men to 
occupy New Netherland, the company 
gave to any of its members who should 
buy land of the Indians, and form a col- 
ony of fifty persons, the right 
to almost absolute power over 
land and colonists. These owners were 
called patroons, and they acquired very 

large estates. The patroons sent out farmers, cattle, and tools. 

They established trading posts also on the Connecticut, as well 

as on the North and South rivers. 

28. New Sweden. — The Dutch and the Swedes had much in 
common, especially in their religion, for they were both strong 
Protestant countries ; and after some unsuccessful attempts on 
the part of Sweden to plant colonies in America, a Swedish- 




1623. 



Flag of the Dutch West 
India Company. 



1 The Dutch pronounced this name somewhat like Aurania. 

2 In Higginson's Young Folks' Series, No. 7, is Henry Hudson and the New 
Netherlands. 



THE FRENCH, THE DUTCH, AND THE SWEDES. 37 

Dutch trading company was formed. Peter Minuit, who had 
been prominent in ISTew Amsterdam, was the leader of a colony 
which reached the shores of the Delaware Eiver in the spring 
of 1638. 

The colonists purchased land of the Indians on the west 
bank of the river and built a fort near the site of the present 
city of Wilmington, Delaware, which they named Fort Chris- f 
tina, after the Queen of Sweden.^ The queen and her coun- 
sellors determined to make the colony more distinctly Swedish. 
Emigration was encouraged, the Dutch interest was bought 
out, and active measures were taken to make a flourishing 
settlement. • 

The Dutch invade New Sweden. — At first the relations be- 
tween the Swedes and the Dutch of New Netherland were 
friendly, but as years went by the Dutch were unwilling to 
see their settlements on the Delaware fall into the hands of 

the Swedes, and they invaded New Sweden, as it was 

1655 
called, besieged Fort Christina, and gained control of 

the region. Sweden made a slight effort to recover the terri- 
tory, but emigration ceased. The families already planted 
there, however, continued to flourish under Dutch rule; and 
many Avell-known families in our day along the Delaware are 
descendants of these Swedes. 

1 Hawthorne has a sketch of Queen Christina in his Biographical Sketches. 

QUESTIONS. 

Why had fish become so important to Europe in the sixteenth century ? 
How were the fishermen helps to the early French explorers ? When 
did Verrazano set sail and with what object? What was the result? 
What Frenchman followed him and what did he accomplish ? In what 
part of America were the French more permanently settled ? What made 
the occupation of the St. Lawrence River country most effective ? What 
two industries attracted Frenchmen thither ? To what French explorer 
are we especially indebted for early knowledge of the country ? How 
has his name become permanent in America ? Who was Loyola and 
what order did he found ? How did the Jesuits differ from other priests? 
How did they attempt to convert the Indians ? How did the French 



3^ DISCOVERY AND *SETTLEMENT. 

make lasting enemies of the Iroquois ? Describe the successive explora- 
tions in the west of Champlain, Nicolet, Joliet. What is the first known 
reference to Chicago ? What was the date of La Salle's coming to 
Canada ? In what part of the St. Lawrence River does the name of his 
settlement survive ? Who first saw and described the Falls of Niagara ? 
Narrate the explorations by La Salle which ended with the full discovery 
of the Mississippi. What Spaniard once discovered the lower waters of 
that great river ? Where did Louisiana get its name ? What did that 
name at first cover ? What did the French do to hold possession of the 
Mississippi ? What is the nature of the country of Holland ? Under 
what rule was it once ? What made the Dutch merchants, navigators 
and fishermen ? What was the Dutch East India Company, and why 
did it send Hudson to this country ? Where did Hudson go ? What 
became of him ? What was the immediate effect of his discovery ? 
What was the nature of the Dutch occupation ? Narrate the successive 
stages in the Swedish occupation of the Delaware country. 



SEARCH QUESTIONS. 

Name some places in the United States which show signs of former 
French occupation. How near did Champlain and Hudson come to each 
other in their explorations ? The French Huguenots failed in making a 
settlement in Florida. There was a tragedy at Fort Caroline. What 
was it ? By what right does a nation lay claim to the territory of a 
country ? Where and when was made the first permanent French settle- 
ment in America ? Why did not Champlain continue his explorations 
southward after discovering Lake Champlain ? What explorations did 
Champlain make along the Atlantic coast? What is the origin of the 
word "Montreal " ? Where do our furs to-day come from ? Find some 
names in New York which are of Dutch origin. What price was paid by 
the Dutch to the Indians for Manhattan Island ? 



SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. 

Compositions : 

A contrast of Chachagou-Ession and Chicago. 

A description of Niagara Falls as they must have been when Hennepin 
made his discovery. 

Hudson's explorations in the bay that bears his name. 

Debate : 

Resolved^ That it was better for after generations that the Dutch rather 
than the French should have settled on the shores of the Hudson. 



CHAPTER IV. 



THE ENGLISH IN AMERICA. I. 



Cabot (ka'bot). 

Be'ring. The strait so called was 
named from its discoverer, a 
Dane. 

Plymouth (plim'utli). 

Raleigh (raw'li). 

Pam'lico. 

Ro'andke. 

Gosnold (gos'nold). 

Newport News (ntis). A cape at 
the entrance of the James River. 
The name originally was New- 
port-Newce, Sir William Newce, 
the marshal of the colony, being 
a neighbor of Newport. 

Parliament (par'li-ment). The 
body in English government 
which corresponds to our Con- 
gress. The word is from the 
French, and means "the talking 
body." 

Powhatan (pow-ha-tan'). 

Pocahon'tas. 

Pyrites (pi-ri'tez) . A yellow dust 
of no value, that looks like 
gold. 

Delaware. The old form is "de 
la Warr." 

Pat'ent. A legal paper giving 
special rights. The term is now 
used of inventions, but formerly 
it covered the right to plant col- 
onies and hold land. 

Leyden (ll'den). 

Delft Ha'ven. The harbor at Delft, 



in Holland, eight miles from Delf 1, 
and near the city of Rotterdam. 

Mayflower. The English May- 
flower plant was the hawthorn ; 
but the name in America was ap- 
plied, very early, to the trailing 
arbutus, which is abundant in 
the woods near Plymouth. The 
Speedwell was also named from 
an English flower. 

Charter. A patent gave rights to 
hold property or to trade. A 
charter gave, besides, certain 
rights of government. 

Massachusetts. This was the 
name, as the English wrote it, 
of a tribe of Indians occupying 
the country. 

Harvard University, at Cambridge, 
Massachusetts, takes its name 
from John Harvard, a minister 
of Charlestown, who left his li- 
brary and half of his property 
to the college, which had been 
determined upon two years before 
his death. 

Groton (gro'ton). 

Suff"olk (suf'fuk) = South Folk. 

Windsor (win'zer). 

Connecticut (kon-net'i-kut). An 
Indian name, meaning "the long 
river." 

Gorges (gor'jez). 

Saco (sa'ko). 

Piscat'aqua. 



39 



40 



DISCOVEET AND %ETTLEMENT, 



Maine is said to derive its name 
from the use of the term to dis- 
tinguish the mainland from the 
islands on the coast. 

Commonwealth. The name by 
which England was called when 



under the rule of Parliament and' 

Cromwell. 
Stuyvesant (sti've-sant). 
Revenue. The money received 

from taxes and custom - house 

dues. 




The Great Harry, -the First Famous Ship of the English Navy. Built in 1512. 

29. The First English Discoveries. — Each of four great nations 
of Europe made its separate entrance into America, and at 
the first occupied its separate territory; and each was look- 
ing for India. The English were very early on the ground. 
In 1497, but five years after the first voyage of Columbus, 
John Cabot, a Venetian captain, living in England, sailed out 
of Bristol in search of a northwest passage to India. He came 
upon the coast of North America near Cape Breton, and on a 
second voyage the next year followed south and westward 
nine hundred miles. ^ 



1 Documents describing the Voyage of John Cabot in 1497 will be found 
in No. 9, American History Leaflets. 



THE ENGLISH IJST AMERICA. 



41 



The English at first paid little heed to these discoveries 
made by Cabot. They were intent on finding a way to India 
by the northeast ; and only by repeated failures to get through 
the Arctic Ocean north of Asia, did they turn their attention 
to the Northwest Passage.^ During the earlier part of the 
sixteenth century, England was inferior in power to Spain 
and France, but it gathered strength, especially at sea.^ 

The south and west coast of England contains the harbors 
from which most of the vessels sailed, and the busiest of these 
was the harbor of Ply- 
mouth. Near by lived 
Sir Francis Drake, who, 
like Balboa, had seen 
the Pacific from Pan- 
ama, and could not rest 
till he had sailed upon 
it. So, in the autumn 
of 1577, Drake set sail 
with a fleet of five ves- 
sels. Three years later, 
he sailed into 
Plymouth har- ^^^^• 
bor with a single ves- 
sel. He had visited the 
coast of what is now 
California, and, cross- 
ing the Pacific Ocean, 
had rounded the Cape 
of Good Hope, and 
thus sailed round the globe. All England rang with his fame. 

30. Sir Walter Raleigh and his Ventures. — A great rivalry 
sprang up between England and Spain, which was partly com- 

1 The Northwest Passage has never been made by any vessel. The first 
party of Europeans to make the journey between Bering Strait and Baffin's 
Bay was Captain M'Clure's in 1852-53, which went partly by water, partly 
over ice. 

2 See, for a spirited tale of this period, Charles Kingsley's Westioard Ho ! 




Sir Prancis Drake. Born alDOut 1545 ) died 1595. 



42 



DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



mercial, partly religious, and English statesmen turned their 
eyes toward the New World where Spain had acquired great 
wealth. One of these statesmen, Sir Walter Ealeigh, was 
occupied with great affairs in England, but he had large de- 
signs for colonizing America. Heretofore, Spaniards and 
Frenchmen had built forts and overrun the country, but their 
possession had been a military possession. Ealeigh and other 

Englishmen had it in 
mind to occupy the land 
with families, to till the 
soil and make homes. 

Ealeigh sent two ves- 
sels to explore, which 
sailed by way of the 
Canaries and West In- 
dies; and coming upon 
the shore of what is 
now North Carolina, 
anchored in Pamlico 
Sound, and visited Eoa- 
noke Island. The ex- 
plorers brought back 
glowing accounts of the 
land and the people, and 
Ealeigh obtained con- 
sent from the virgin 
Queen Elizabeth to 
name the country after her, Virginia. This name was at first 
applied to all the country lying between the French posses- 
sions and the Spanish, and extending no one knew how far to 
the west. 

Raleigh at once laid plans for a great colony. In the spring 
of 1585 he sent out seven ships, which carried a hundred colo- 
nists, several of whom were men of learning and fame. The 
settlers got into trouble with the Indians and in a year or two 
returned to England, bringing with them the first tobacco 




Sir Walter Raleigh, Born 1552. 



THE ENGLISH IN AMERICA, 



43 



ever seen in Europe. Kaleigli was not discouraged. The 
next summer he sent out a fresh expedition, which for the 
fn-st time included women. A child, named Virginia 
Dare, was born in the colony, the first born in Amer- 
ica of English parentage. She was the granddaughter of John 
White, the governor 
of the colony. 

The Lost Colony. — 
White returned to 
England for further 
help; he found the 
country engaged in a 
new war with Spain, 
and it was three years 
before he could get 
back to Virginia. 
When he did return, 
not a colonist was to 
be found, nor any 
trace of the company 
beyond a few letters 
cut in the bark of a 
tree. Kaleigh sent 
vessel after vessel in 
vain search for the 
lost colony. He him- 
self fell iiito trouble 
at home, and at last 
could do nothing 
more in Virginia. He 
said, "I shall yet live to see it an English nation." But he 
did not live to see this. He was a victim of the troublous 




The Coast visited by Ealeigh's Vessels. 



1618. 



times which were coming upon England, and was 
put to death by King James I. He intended his 
colony to bear the name of Raleigh, and that name was after- 
wards given to the capital of the State formed from the 



44 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT, 

region in which he sought to pLant his colony. It is a famous 

name in English history, and the story of Kaleigh's attempt 

shows how the greatest Englishmen were thinking of the New 

World. 

31. The Virginia Company. — In the year in which Kaleigh 

sent out his last vessel to search for the lost colony, 
1602 

the Earl of Southampton sent Bartholomew Gosnold, 

with a small vessel, to plant a colony in Virginia. Gosnold 
reached the coast near Casco Bay, sailed south, and visited 
a cape, to which he gave the name of Cape Cod, which it has 
ever since borne. When he returned to England with accounts 
of the country which he had visited, he persuaded a 
number of men of influence to form the Virginia Com- 
pany, an association somewhat like the stock companies of our 
day, but designed chiefly for trade and for settling new lands.. 
This company received the right to hold all the land from 
Cape Eear to the St. Croix Kiver. King James I., who suc- 
ceeded Queen Elizabeth, was anxious to increase his own 
power, and to make the royal family more independent of 
Parliament and the people. The patent which he 

■ gave the Virginia Company, therefore, provided care- 
fully for the government of such colonies as the company 
might form. The king was to appoint the managing council. 
The Virginia Company was in two divisions, called the Lon- 
don Company and the Plymouth Company. The former, com- 
posed chiefly of men living in London, was to trade and form 
colonies in the southern part of the territory. The latter, 
composed of members living about Plymouth, was to control 
the northern part. 

The Jamestown Settlement. — The next year the first per- 
manent settlement by Englishmen in America was made. 
The London Company sent out about a hundred men 

■ in a fleet of three vessels, commanded by Captain 
Christopher Newport,^ who was instructed to land on Roanoke 
Island. A storm arose off the coast, and drove the fleet into 

1 His name remains in Newport News. 



THE ENGLISH IN AMERICA, 



45 



Chesapeake Bay, which they entered for shelter. They were 
so attracted by the beauty of the place that they determined 
to settle there; and after exploring the shores of a river, 
which they named the James from the King of England, 
they chose a low 
peninsula^ for their 
settlement. There 
they landed, May 13, 
and called the place 
Jamestown. They 
had named the two 
capes at the entrance 
of the bay, Cape Hen- 
ry and Cape Charles, 
for the sons of the 
king. 

32. The Founding of 
Virginia. — Not half 
of the colony had ever 
worked with their 
hands. Most of the 
members were gentle- 
men who hoped to 
find gold at once, and 
make their fortunes; 
but they fell to work 
in the pleasant wea- 
ther, cut down trees, 
built huts, and made 
rude clapboards, with 
which they loaded 
two of the vessels, and sent Captain Newport back with them 
to England. He was to return with supplies. 

A terrible summer followed. The peninsula, which they 
had chosen for security against the Indians, was an unhealthy 

1 What was then a peninsula has since become an island. 




' 7 l' " — \C.Henrd 



First Settlement in Virginia. 



46 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 

spot, and a pestilence swept away half the colony. If it had 
not been for some Indians, who brought them corn, the rest 
would have died of starvation. The frosts of autumn stayed 
the pestilence, and the colony then found an abundance of 
game. The Indians, for the most part, were friendly, but 
they had not forgotten the wrongs which they had suffered 
from the parties sent out by Kaleighj and the English were 
too ready to use their guns whenever they fancied the Indians 
meant to attack them. 

The Story of Pocahontas. — The most powerful chief in the 
neighborhood was Powhatan, who had his principal village 
on the bank of what is now York Eiver. Captain John 
Smith, the real leader of the colony, was exploring the coun- 
try with two men, when the Indians fell upon them, killed the 
two men, and carried Smith captive to Powhatan, who deter- 
mined to put him to death. Smith tells the story that, at the 
moment when his head was laid upon a stone, and Powhatan 
stood with an uplifted club ready to, dash out his brains, 
Pocahontas, a young daughter of the chief, rushed in and 
begged her father to spare the white man's life; whereupon 
Smith was released. Certain it is that Powhatan, after this, 
treated the English kindly; and Pocahontas, who was a lively 
Indian girl, made friends with them, visited Jamestown, and 
finally married one of the colonists named John Eolfe, with 
whom she went to England. She was greatly admired there 
as an Indian princess, but died before she could return to 
Virginia. 

Hunting for Gold. — The company in England still believed 
that Virginia was near India; and when they heard stories 
about Powhatan, they imagined him to be a king of great 
importance, and sent a crown to be placed on his head. They 
bade the colonists also hunt for gold, and for the South Sea, 
as the Pacific Ocean was called. Captain Smith had sailed up 
the rivers and about the bays without finding any way through 
to India. He made expeditions up the Atlantic coast also, 
and published more than one account of his voyages, with 



THE ENGLISn IN AMETtlCA, 



47 



maps. Indeed, he did more perhaps than any single person 
to make the new country known in England. Some people 
had discovered a substance, which they supposed to he gold. 




Captain Jolm Smith. Bom 1580; died 1631. 

They loaded a ship with it and sent it back to England; but 
it proved to be iron pyrites, or fool's gold. 

Reenf orcements from England. — In spite of the ill success of 
these first ventures, there was a strong conviction in England 
that emigration to Virginia was a good thing, and that this 



48 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT, 

new country would give a fresh chance to the multitude of 
poor in England. A new charter was obtained by which the 
company could manage its affairs and emigration better. 
Sermons, even, were preached in the churches, advising the 
poor to go to Virginia. When finally, after various disasters, 
a fleet commanded by Lord Delaware, who had been appointed 
Governor of Virginia, drew near the settlement, it met the 
wretched colonists coming down the river. They had been so 
discouraged and were in such trouble with the Indians that 
they had determined to abandon Virginia. 

Tobacco. — A change at once came over the colony. Lord 
Delaware was the first of a succession of governors who man- 
aged Virginia very much as if they were kings with absolute 
power over their subjects. They made very severe laws, and 
compelled every one to work for the company. They built fortsi, 
and on the slightest pretext attacked the Indians and burned 
their villages. The settlements on the James River began to 
thrive, and large plantations were formed. The set- 
tlers began to plant tobacco after the custom of the 
Indians about them, and to export it to England. In vain did 
the King of England, James I., write a tract against the use 
of the weed. It became at once popular in England, and the 
chief source of wealth in Virginia. 

33. The Separatists. — One year after the first English colony 
was planted at Jamestown, a number of families from the 
northeastern part of England made their way secretly to 
Holland, where they settled, first in Amsterdam and after- 
ward in Leyden. They belonged to a class of religious per- 
sons known as Separatists, because they had separated from 
the Church of England. 

The Church of England had separated from the Roman 
Catholic Churgh; but these Separatists declared that the 
teachings of the one church were but little different from 
those of the other. They believed that true religion is 
simple, and that when a few people come together with their 
Bibles, they can teach one another all that is needed for a 



THE ENGLISH IN AMERICA. 49 

religious life. The Church of England demanded obedience; 
and since it was a part of the government of the land, it 
could enforce this obedience by fines and imprisonment. The 
Separatists had few noble or rich men in their number; there- 
fore they were not influential. But they believed devoutly 
tliat right was on their side, and for ten years they continued 
to leave the country rather than submit to the laws of the 
Church of England. 

The Separatists in Holland. — In Holland they were among 
a crowded people, speaking a different language and having 
different manners. As their children grew up, it became clear 
to the parents that they would learn the Dutch language, 
marry, settle in Holland, and cease to be English. The wiser 
among them looked earnestly, therefore, for some country 
where they could keep their English ways. This was espe- 
cially needful since a truce of twelve years between Spain and 
Holland was drawing to an end and war might soon break 
out. They could not go to Jamestown, because the Church of 
England ruled there; so their friends in England formed a 
company and agreed to send them to the northern part of the 
territory claimed by the London Company. 

34. The Pilgrims. — A part of the Separatists set out first, 
to prepare the way. They sailed in the Speedwell from Delft 
Haven, in Holland, to Southampton, in England. There they 
were joined by the Mayflower ; but after putting out to sea, 
the Speedwell was found to be unsafe, and they turned back to 
the harbor of Plymouth. Here they decided to abandon the 
Speedwell. A few gave up going altogether, and the rest, a 
hundred and two^ in number, crowded with their goods into 
the little Mayflower. They tried to reach the Jersey coast, 
but were driven out of their course by storms ; at last they 
cast anchor in the harbor of what is now Provincetown, at the 
end of Cape Cod. 

As soon as they had landed, they fell upon their knees and 

1 One died on the voyage, and a child, Oceanus Hopkins, was born ; so that 
the number remained the same. 



50 



DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT, 



blessed God for having brought them safe across the ocean. 
And since they had been moved chiefly by religious reasons, 
and had wandered far from their first home, these men and 
women have come to be known in history as the Pilgrims. 
The spot on which they had landed was not suitable for a 
settlement, especially as there was no good water to be had. 
Parties were sent out to explore the coast and the bay. 




The Mayflower. 

Landing of the Pilgrims. — The reports which they brought 
back led the whole company to return to the Mayflower, and 
sail across the bay to a sheltered harbor, where they cast 
anchor. They were pleased to find a brook of pure water 
which flowed down a hillside opposite the harbor; and there 
were fields which had been cleared by the Indians for planting. 
The place had been marked Plymouth on a map which Captain 
John Smith ^ had made of the coast; that was the name, too, 

1 Smith had oifered to go with the Pilgrims and help them settle in America, 
but they declined his offer. 



THE ENGLISH IN AMERICA. 61 

of the last place they had left in England, where they had 
many friends. Plymouth, therefore, was the name they gave 
to the settlement now formed. A large rock, the only one in 
the neighborhood, is pointed out as the spot upon which the 
exploring party that discovered the place is said to have landed. 
The twenty-second day of December is observed as the Land- 
ing of the Pilgrims, although the Mayflower did not arrive till 
five days later. The year of the landing was 1620. 

35. The Plymouth Settlement. — While the Mayflower lay in 
Provincetown harbor the Pilgrims signed a compact ^ for gov- 
V ernment, for they supposed themselves in a region not held by 
any English company. By this compact they agreed to stand 
by one another, and to obey the laws which they might make 
for the rule of the colony. Not much government was 
required, for nearly all were of one mind. They were chiefly 
anxious to have among them those of the same faith ; for they 
had braved the seas because they hoped in this new land to 
keep what they valued most, — their religion. 

During the first winter some of the Pilgrims lived in the 
rude huts which they had built, and some remained on board 
the Mayflower. Half of the company died before the winter 
was over. Although they had suffered so much, not one went 
back to England when the Mayflower sailed in April. New 
companies were sent out from England to Plymouth and its 
neighborhood, but all were not of the same spirit as the Pil- 
grims. Since Plymouth proved to be in a part of the country 
held by the Plymouth Company, the colonists came under the 
control of that company, but it granted them the right to some 
self-government. 

They had at first much fear lest the savages should molest 
them, and they looked for military guidance to one of their 
number, a short, thickset man. Captain Miles Standish,^ who 
had seen fighting in the war between Holland and Spain. But 

1 This compact is one of the four great documents in American history 
which are given in the Appendix. 

2 Longfellow wrote a famous poem called The Courtship of Miles Standish. 



52 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT, 

there had been a plague not long before which had swept away- 
most of the Indians in the neighborhood, and those who re- 
mained were, for the most part, disposed to be friendly.^ 

36. The Puritans. — The Pilgrims kept up a connection 
with their friends in England, and their settlement in Amer- 
ica caused much interest among those Englishmen who were 
known as Puritans. These were so nicknamed because they 
claimed to be seeking purer church ways; but they were 
still members of the Church of England. Unlike the Separa- 
tists, they formed a political as well as religious party, and 
they stood for government by law through Parliament against 
government by the will of the king. 

A crisis came when King Charles I. dissolved Parliament. 

He meant to rule in his own name, and most of the bishops of 

the Church were on his side. The Puritans were 
1629 

' greatly alarmed. They thought that there would be 

no civil liberty in England when the king ruled without con- 
sulting Parliament. They feared that the bishops would lead 
the people back to the Church of Eome. A great many wished 
to escape from England, and they began to think of the country 
beyond the seas as a place of refuge. The old England was 
going to ruin; they would set up a new England there. If 
liberty was in danger in England, they would give liberty a 
new home. 

A trading company had just been formed, under the title 
of "The Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay 
in New England." It was composed of Puritans, and had 
a charter from King Charles giving a territory described as 

1 There is an interesting series of historical romances dealing with the life 
of the Plymouth colony, written by Jane Goodwin Austin. The first is called 
Standish of Standish. Goodwin's The Pilgrim Republic is a comprehensive 
account. The most thorough condensed study of the Pilgrims is Arher's The 
Story of the Pilgrim Fathers. The most famous contemporary work is Brad- 
ford's Historij of Plymouth Plantation. A readable portion of this is easily 
accessible in No. 3 of Historical Classic Readings. Governor Bradford sent 
home a narrative of the colony in 1622, but some Frenchmen captured the 
little vessel Fortune, which sailed between the colony and England, and 
carried off the narrative. 



THE ENGLISH IN AMERICA, 53 

extending from the Atlantic to the Western Ocean, and from 
three miles above the Merrimac River to three miles below 
the Charles, and their branches. The members could make 
laws for the government of the territory, but these laws must 
not oppose the laws of England. 

37. The Migration of the Puritans. — There was nothing novel 
in such a charter. Other companies had been formed before 
and had received similar charters. But the company, after 
the king dissolved Parliament, was suddenly enlarged. Many 
English gentlemen of education and rank sold their property 
in England and joined the company. The most conspicuous 
of them was John Winthrojj, a gentleman from Groton, in 
Suffolk County, a part of England where there were many 
Puritans. He was chosen governor of the company.^ 

They determined to go over to America, carry the charter 
with them, and take possession themselves of the territory 
belonging to the company. This was a bold step. Before, the 
company in England had sent out colonists, and had managed 
the affairs of the colony in London. The king and his court 
were close at hand to interfere. Now, the company would 
itself be in America, at a distance from the king, and man- 
aging its own affairs on the spot. 

In the spring of 1630 not far from a thousand persons left 
England and sailed for the shores of Massachusetts Bay. They 
went first to Salem, for it was Puritans who had founded that 
place. But the settlers advised them to seek a place near the 
head of the bay. They went accordingly to what is now 
Charlestown. Then the most of them crossed the Charles 
River to a peninsula. It could be easily defended; it had 
good springs of water, and before it lay a wide harbor. Since 
their chief minister, John Cotton, came from Boston in Eng- 
land, and many others from its neighborhood, that name was 
given to the place. Others who came from Dorchester in 
England gave that name to a place near by. The English 
very often gave the names of their old homes to new settle- 
1 See his life by J. Twichell. 



54 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 

ments in America, just as in western States to-day we find 
names of towns copied from those in the East from which 
their first settlers came. 




John Winthrop. Born 1587 ) died 1649. 

38. The Settlement at Boston. — The peninsula of Boston was 
at that time connected with the mainland by a narrow neck 
over which the sea would wash. This peninsula was uneven 
in surface, having high hills and marshy hollows, and was 
bare of wood. No Indians lived upon it, and there were very 



THE ENGLISH IN AMERICA. 65 

few signs of any Indians in the neighborhood. Three or four 
Englishmen only had made clearings about the lower bay. 
The people who took possession of this territory had come to 
stay, and did not mean to be dependent upon England. All, 
from the governor down, applied themselves to some useful 
occupation. 

They began at once to cultivate the land, both on the pen- 
insula and in the farms which they laid out in the surround- 
ing country. Since the colony was by the water side, the 
business of fishing early became important. Within a year 
shipbuilding began. The governor built a bark of thirty tons' 
burden, called the Blessing. of the Bay. Soon a fleet of ves- 
sels, large and small, built in the colony, were sailing out of 
Boston and Salem harbors, and smaller ports, to Virginia and 
Bermuda, and across the ocean to England. 

39. The Beginnings of Massachusetts. — While this bustling 
life was adding strength and wealth to the colony, the people 
were showing in other ways that they intended to establish a 
State. They set up schools for their children, and 
they laid the foundation of a college, which has grown 
into the prosperous Harvard University. 

In England the Puritans had tried to strip the Church of all 
forms and ceremonies which seemed to them to make it like the 
Church of Rome. Thus it was easy for them, when they came 
to America and were left to themselves, to carry out their ideas. 
They formed churches upon the plan of a mutual covenant or 
agreement, and chose their own pastors and teachers ; in this 
they were influenced by the Pilgrims. The Puritans in England 
had also been unwilling that the king should have the power 
to rule the people without giving them a voice in the govern- 
ment. In Massachusetts they meant to manage their own 
affairs; and they agreed that none should vote but those who 
were members of the churches which they formed. 

As the number of inhabitants in the colony increased, and 
towns were established at distances from one another, it became 
impossible for all the voters in the colony to meet together. 



56 DISCOVERT AND SETTLEMENT, 

Thus it came about that the voters in each town chose persons 
to represent them at a General Court of the whole colony 
which met in Boston. For ten years the colony grew rapidly. 
Within those years about twenty thousand persons crossed the 
Atlantic to New England. It was the first great migration of 
Englishmen, and it was mainly a migration of Puritans.^ 

40. The Settling of Connecticut It was not long before the 

settlers began to push into the interior. The Blessing of the 

Bay made a cruise in Long Island Sound, and came back with 

reports of the Connecticut E-iver. Some people of 

Plymouth who heard of the richness of the river 

valley made a settlement on its bar^ks at what is now Windsor. 

The Dutch from New Amsterdam had already built a fort 
and trading post six miles below, at the place AThere Hartford 
now stands ; their purpose was to get furs from the Indians. 
Then a number of people from towns in the neighborhood of 
Boston moved to the same river, with all their goods and cattle. 
A whole church with its minister went through the woods into 
the new country ; and three towns were formed, — Windsor, 
Wethersfield, and Hartford. In 1637 these towns united to 
form a General Court for the government of the colony of 
Connecticut. 

Saybrook and New Haven. — Meanwhile a patent had been given 
to two English noblemen. Lord Say and Sele and Lord Brook. 
This patent gave them the land bordering upon the Connecticut 
Eiver; and in 1635 John Winthrop, son of the Governor of 
Massachusetts, came from England with a colony to take posses- 
sion. He drove the Dutch away from the mouth of the river, 
where they built a fort, and he planted there the town of Say- 
brook. Another colony of English Puritans was established at 

New Haven. It bought its land from the Indians. 
1638 

' Thus there were three colonies within the borders of 

what is now the State of Connecticut. Saybrook afterward 

1 In my Boston Town will be found a detailed narrative of the early life in 
Massachusetts. No. 8 of Higginson's Young Folks' Series comprises The Pil- 
grims at Plymouth and The Massachusetts Bay Company. 



THE 

NEW ENGLAND 

COAST 

SCALE OF MILES 










^Off CUTTYHUNK 



68 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT, 

became a part of the Connecticut colony, which had its seat of 
government at Hartford. 

41. The Beginning of Rhode Island. — Ehode Island was 
formed partly by colonists from Massachusetts Bay and partly 
by companies from England. But the colonists from Massar 
chusetts Bay did not go to Bhode Island of their own will. 
They differed from the rulers at Boston, and were compelled 
to find some other home. They went to Narragansett Bay, 
which was claimed by the other colonies. 

The Puritans had come to Massachusetts Bay to be free 
from the Church of England and to govern themselves. But 
they were not all of the same way of thinking; hence the 
leaders took alarm. They thought the colony was in danger 
from those who differed from them in religious views ; and 
they either banished them or made it too uncomfortable for 
them to stay. A minister named Eoger Williams said, for one 
thijig, that the magistrates ought not to declare what a man's 
religion should be ; what seemed to them more dangerous was 
his assertion that the Massachusetts people had no true title 
to the land they had bought of the Indians. The magis- 
trates said that Williams was a source of peril, and they 
drove him out of the colony. He went to the wilderness, 
where he was befriended by the Indians. At last, 

1 C\OD "^ 

* with five companions, he made his home at a. place 
which he called Providence, because God had provided for him. 
In 1638 and the year following, settlements were made at 
Portsmouth and Newport on the island of Ehode Island, and 
other towns sprang up. These various settlements sent Eoger 
AVilliams to England to obtain a charter for the government. 
It Avas full of his ideas, and gave the people great 
freedom, especially in religious matters. The settle- 
ments were constantly troubled by the Massachusetts and 
Plymouth people in regard to boundaries, and Massachusetts 
tried to bring the colony under her rule. 

42. Maine and New Hampshire. — Sir Ferdinando Gorges, a 
man of great ambition, who had dreams of founding a great 



THE ENGLISH IN AMERICA. 69 

kingdom in America, obtained a grant of land in New Eng- 
land. He began settlements at Portsmoutli and Dover, and 
in 1623 joined with him Captain John Mason. Seven years 
later, Saco and Biddeford were founded. Immediately after 
this. Gorges and Mason divided their claims. Gorges took 
the country to the east of the Piscataqua Eiver. Mason took 
the remainder of the grant and named it New Hampshire, 
because at the time he held high office in the county of Hamp- 
shire in England. Mason died, and the settlements in New 
Hampshire were left to themselves. Other people came from 
Massachusetts, and for a while the towns were under the rule 
of that colony. The little fishing villages in Maine were also 
left much to themselves, for Gorges never came over to look 
after his estate. 

43. The Treatment of the Indians by the English As the colo- 
nies increased in number, and sent out their members farther 
and farther into the wilderness, the Indian saw that the land 
over which he had freely roamed was closing against him. 
He saw it was impossible to live by hunting where the white 
man was tilling the soil. The English showed little wisdom 
in their treatment of the Indians. They disliked them for 
their savage ways. .They could not understand them, and 
tried to make them obey laws which it was impossible for an 
Indian to understand. They thought they might make ser- 
vants of the Indians ; but this was like taming wild animals. 

Attempts at Christianizing the Indians. — The Puritans, in- 
deed, regarded the Indians as heathen. Many treated them 
harshly, and wished them out of the way. A few sought to 
make Christians of them ; and one holy man in particular, 
the Kev. John Eliot, was so faithful in his efforts for them 
that he came to be known as the Apostle to the Indians. 
He translated the Bible into the Indian tongue as well 
as various religious books and sermons. A hall for In- 
dians even was built in connection with Harvard College. 
There were few Indians, however, who would give up their 
wild ways. The rest hovered about the English settlements, 



60 DISCOVERY AND* SETTLEMENT. 

or retreated into the woods and talked over schemes for rid- 
ding the country of the newcomers. Both in New England 
and in New Netherland the whites and the Indians began to 
irritate each other more and more. 

44. Indian Wars. — Those settlers who lived outside of Bos- 
ton and the few seaport villages built palisades about their 
houses and farm buildings. A group of buildings thus pro- 
tected was called a stockade. Sometimes they made the houses 
themselves into rude forts, in which they could defend them- 
selves in case of need. All the towns and villages had train- 




A Stockade. 

bands, — companies of men ready to march at a moment's 
notice. In any fight with the Indians the whites at first had 
the advantage of firearms; but the Indians soon learned the 
use of these. The English forbade the sale of arms to the 
Indians, but the Dutch traders sold them freely. The Indians, 
however, depended chiefly upon their tomahawks when they 
suddenly appeared from the woods and attacked farms and 
villages. 

The Pequot War. — The first severe war with the Indians be- 
gan in 1636, and is known as the Pequot War. The Pequots 
were a fierce tribe living in the eastern part of what is now 
Connecticut. The English showed little mercy in this war and 



TEE ENGLISH IN AMERICA. 61 

almost utterly destroyed the Peqiiot tribe. The punishment 
was so severe that it was many years before another Indian 
war broke out. But the Indian hate was deepened. 

The United Colonies of New England. — An important effect of 
the war upon the New England colonies was to cause them to 
seek a close union. In the peril, each had helped the other. 
Connecticut and New Haven were especially anxious to have 
such a league because they were most exposed to danger from 
the Dutch and the Indians. They were willing to admit 
Rhode Island; but Massachusetts would not consent to that — 
she would not admit into such a league people whom she had 
driven out from her borders. The league, finally, was formed 
in 1643. It was called the United Colonies of New England, 
and embraced Massachusetts, Plymouth, New Haven, and Con- 
necticut. It was not proposed to unite these colonies under 
one government. Each was to continue independent ; but they 
formed the league for mutual advice and aid.^ 

45. The Puritan Commonwealth in England. — One of the rea- 
sons which the people of New England gave for forming a 
closer union among themselves was the condition of England 
itself. That country was "distracted," and the colonies in 
New England declared that they must trust more to them- 
selves and less to the mother country. The conflict between 
the king and Parliament had become open war, and with the 

war emigration to America ceased. There was so 

1642 
much excitement in England, and the Puritan party 

was coming to have so much power, that few wished to go to 
the new land. 

The war between the king and Parliament continued for 
seven years, when King Charles I. was tried and executed. 
England was now declared to be a Commonwealth. The 
people were to rule through their representatives in Parlia- 
ment, and Oliver Cromwell became chief magistrate, with the 
title of Lord Protector. Although this success of the Puri- 

1 See The Articles of Confederation of the United Colonies of Neio England 
in No. 7, American History Leaflets. 



62 DISCOVERT AND ^SETTLEMENT. 

tans in England was welcome to their friends in New England, 
great care was taken by the colonies not to join either party 
openly. They had been really governing themselves, 
' and they wished to keep clear of the control of Eng- 
land, whether that control was exercised by the king or by 
Parliament. 

46. The Navigation Acts. — The laws which Parliament made 
for the regulation of trade were of great importance to America. 

The first of a series of acts, called the Navigation Acts, 
was now passed. It declared that no goods should be 
carried to the colonies or brought from them except in English 
ships. This act was followed by others forbidding the colonies 
to send their products to any ports except such as belonged 
to England. These laws were intended to increase the ship- 
ping and benefit the merchants of England ; for it was com- 
monly held in those days that colonies existed chiefly for the 
benefit of the mother country. 

European Rivalries. — One effect of these laws was to make 
ill feeling between England and other commercial countries of 
Europe. Holland was the great rival of England, and war 
broke out between the two countries, which ended in 
breaking down Holland. England also went to war 
with Spain, and took from her the island of Jamaica, which she 
still holds. The Puritan Commonwealth of England did not 
last after Cromwell's death. The monarchy was restored, and 
King Charles 11. came to the throne. The Naviga- 
tion Acts, however, and other laws which Cromwell's 
Parliament had made, continued to be the law of the land; and 
the country sought to get rich through its colonies. 

47. The Conflict between the English and the Dutch in America. 
— There had always been a dispute as to the first discovery of 
the coast of New Netherland. The king took advantage of 
this dispute to set up his claim ; and he made a formal deed of 
all the country between the Connecticut and Delaware rivers 
to his brother, the Duke of York. The New England colonies 
were well pleased at this. They had been crowding the Dutch 



THE ENGLISB IN AMERICA. 63 

out of Connecticut, and had been claiming one piece of land 
after another. They were quite ready, therefore, to take sides 
with the king when he sent an English fleet across the Atlan- 
tic and took possession of New Netherland. 

The Dutch were in no x^osition to resist. The governor, 
Peter Stuyvesant, a brave man, urged his countrymen to stand 
by him and attack the fleet ; but it was a hopeless 
endeavor. The English set up the king's standard, 
changed the name of New Amsterdam to New York, and that 
of Fort Orange to Albany. This act and others similar to it 
on the coast of Africa led to another war with Hol- 
land. During the war New York for a short time ' 

was again under Dutch rule. But at the end of the 
war New Netherland was ceded to England.^ 

48. King Philip's War. — And now a sudden and terrible 
blow fell upon New England. An Indian chieftain, named 
Philip, who was much above the common Indians in character 
and power of mind, brooded over the wrongs which his race 
had suffered from the strangers. He formed the purpose of 
uniting all the Indians into one body and sweeping the Eng- 
lish from the country. His plans were laid with great skill, 
and for more than a year the war raged, carrying 
desolation through the country. Almost every man 
who could handle a musket took part in the war, which came 
to an end when Philip was killed near Mt. Hope, Eliode 
Island. 

The population of Massachusetts at the time was about 
twenty-five thousand, and it was estimated that a tenth of the 
fighting men of the colony had been killed. This war, called 
King Philip's War, was the last conflict with the Indians in the 
settled parts of New England. The tribes Avere broken up; 
many Indians were miserably sold into slavery in the West 
Indies; others fled farther west. The Christian or Praying 

1 An entertaining account of early New York, in a half-burlesque form, is 
Knickerbocker's History of Neio York, by Washington Irving. A very good 
historical novel of the period is The Begum's Daughter, by E. L. Bynner, 




64 DISCOVERT AND SETTLEMENT, 

Indians, as they were called, had saved the lives of many of 
the people. 

49. The Loss of the Charters While the war lasted, the colo- 
nies were bound together by the common peril. When the 
war was over, each colony found itself weak, through loss 
of men and money. The confederation had gradually failed 
in authority, and in each colony there 
were divisions and parties. Every year 
it became more difficult to keep unbroken 
the early Puritan plan of a religious state. 
In Massachusetts the government was 
obliged to yield to the king's demand, 
and give men who were not members of 
the Church a right to vote. Complaint 
Pine-Tree Shillinff. ^^^ made to the king that Massachusetts 
was coining money, — the right to do 
which belonged to the king alone. 

At last the king lost patience ; the courts declared the char- 
ter of Massachusetts void. Henceforth the king would rule 
the colony himself, through a council and president whom he 
would appoint. There was to be no General Court. 
' The people were to have no voice in the government. 
It was the act of Charles II. ; but just as it was announced, 
he died, and left the throne to his brother, James II. This 
king regarded all the northern colonies as a part of the posses- 
sion of the crown. He claimed all the land as his ; he was to 
make all the laws and lay all the taxes, without asking any 
one's consent. Accordingly, he sent over Sir Edmund Andros 
to be governor of the Province of New England and 
' New York. All the se]3arate charters were to be 
revoked. The separate colonial governments were to be abol- 
ished where they interfered with the authority of Andros. 

A murmur arose throughout the country. Eor more than 
fifty years the people had been governing themselves ; now 
they were bidden to give up this right. In Hartford the 
colonial government met to deliver up the charter. It was 



THE ENGLISH IN AMEBIC A. 65 

evening, and the charter lay on the table. Suddenly the 
candles were blown out. When they were relighted, the char- 
ter had disappeared. One of the members had carried it off ; 
and the story is that he hid it in the hollow trunk of the 
oak which long stood, and bore the name of the Charter Oak. 

50. William and Mary. — Sir Edmund Andros was using in 
New England the despotic power which his master, King 
James II., was using in England. But in neither country 
was liberty dead. In England the king was driven from his 



l\'i:.'x^L.^ 




The Charter Oak. 

throne. By a bloodless revolution, William, Prince of Orange, 
the grandson of Charles I., and Mary, his wife, the 
eldest daughter of James II., were called to rule in 
his stead ; Parliament, which James had closed, again sat and 
made laws. 

In New England rumors came of these changes. Before 
the overthrow of King James was positively known, the people 
of Boston rose, seized the king's officers, shut up the 
governor in a fort, and took possession of the govern- 
ment. Shortly after, the tidings came that William and Mary 
were King and Queen of England. The several colonies of 



66 niSCOVJSRT AND %BTTLEMENT. 

New England again governed themselves under new charters. 
The governors of Massachusetts and for a time those of New 
Hampshire, indeed, were appointed by the crown, and the 
officers of the revenue were the king's officers. The towns 
elected representatives to the different assemblies, and made 
their own laws; but these were not to oppose the laws of 
England.^ 

1 Hawthorne's Grandfather' & Chair is a pleasant series of sketches of early- 
New England. 

QUESTIONS. 

Who was England's first discoverer of America ? What routes were 
successively tried by English sailors making their way toward India ? 
Who was the first Englishman to visit California ? What great queen 
ruled England ? What part of North America did Raleigh seek to colo- 
nize ? Tell the experience he had in his attempt. Where, in America, 
is his name preserved? Narrate Gosnold's voyage. What was the for- 
mation of the Virginia Company, and how was it divided ? When and 
where was the first permanent settlement, by Englishmen in America, 
made ? What members of the royal family of that date have their names 
preserved in Virginia ? What is the origin of the name Newport News ? 
Describe the beginning of the colony. What relation did the early Vir- 
ginians have with the natives ? Tell the story of Captain John Smith and 
Pocahontas. What did the English company expect of their colony in 
Virginia ? What production of the soil gave prosperity to the country ? 

Who were the Separatists ? Where did they go first ? Why did they 
go ? What induced them again to leave their new home ? Give an 
account of their adventures before they finally established a home. What 
is the name by which the settlers in Plymouth are known ? What English 
explorer had been before them, and drawn a map of the coast? What 
was the government of the colony ? Describe the experience of the first 
colonists. Who was their first captain ? What was the difference be- 
tween the Pilgrims and the Puritans ? Narrate the political conditions of 
England which led to a migration of the Puritans. What was the nature 
of the company formed ? How did their action with regard to the charter 
differ from that of other colonists ? Who was the first governor ? How 
large a company came to Massachusetts Bay in 1G30 ? Where were the 
first settlements made ? What led to the chief settlement being made in 
Boston ? Describe the mode of life in the first years of the colony. 
What signs did the people give of their interest in education and religion ? 



THE ENGLISH IN AMERICA. 67 

What constituted the right to vote ? Describe the government of the 
colony. 

From what three sources was Connecticut first settled ? Name the 
origin of Say brook. What led to the first settlement in Rhode Island ? 
Who was l^oger Williams ? What was his relation to the Indians ? How 
did Providence get its name ? What special service did Roger Williams 
render Rhode Island ? Give an account of Mason and Gorges, and the 
settlements made by them. How did the English and Indians get along 
together ? Who translated the Bible into an Indian language ? Who 
were the Pequots ? What was the result of the war ? What was the 
league of 1G43 ? Was this the beginning of a union of the colonies ? 

When did the civil war in England break out ? What were the people 
fighting for ? How did the quarrel end ? Why did not the people of New 
England take part in the war ? What were the Navigation Acts ? What 
wars followed ? What claim was made by Charles II, ? Why did the 
Dutch call their territory New Netherland ? the town, New Amsterdam ? 
the settlement. Fort Orange ? What changes were made by the Eng- 
lish ? 

What is said of Philip ? What plan did he form ? How did the war 
begin, and what was the result ? What change took place in the Massa- 
chusetts colony ? What was the "pine-tree shilling" ? What did the 
king determine to do ? Who was sent over to rule New York and New 
England in the king's name ? What is the story of the Charter Oak ? 
When James II. was dethroned, what happened? What relation was 
William to Mary ? 

SEARCH QUESTIONS. 

What is the name of the legislature of Massachusetts to-day ? What 
title is given to the legislature of Virginia, and why ? Can you name any 
State in the United States which calls itself a commonwealth ? How 
many such States are there ? Did any of the persons who tried King 
Charles I. come to America ? What were they called, and what became 
of them? What families in Virginia trace their descent from Poca- 
hontas ? Who was the first child born to the Pilgrims after their land- 
ing at Plymouth ? 

SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. 

Compositions : 

An account of Bradford's History of Plymoiith Plantation in its wan- 
derings to England and back. 

The finding of the letter sent home by Bradford, and what it contained. 



68 DISCOVERT AND SETTLEMENT. 

Imaginary letter from a passenger in tlie Mayflower telling of the 
voyage. 

The difference between the Pilgrim and the Puritan. 

Contrast Boston of to-day with Boston of 1636. 

The treatment of the Indian by the Spaniard, the Frenchman, and the 
Englishman. 

The hiding of the charter in Charter Oak. 

Debates: 

Besolvedy That the honor of discovering America belongs more to 
Cabot than to Columbus, 

Besolved, That the discovery of tobacco was an evil. 

Besolved, That the Massachusetts colony acted prudently in banishing 
Roger Williams. 

Besolved, That there was more bravery in the days of the bow and 
arrow than in these days of rifle and cannon. 

Besolved, That the treatment of the Indians by the Puritans brought 
about King Philip's War. 



CHAPTER V. 



THE ENGLISH IN AMERICA. IT. 



Dissen'ters. The name applied in 
England to those who dissented 
or separated from the Church of 
England. 

Dep'uty. A deputy acts in the 
place of the regular officer 
when that officer cannot be pres- 
ent. 

Schuylkill (skool'kil). A name 
given by the Dutch. Kill, which 
frequently is found in the end- 
ing of names in New York, 
as Catskill, Peekskill, means 
"creek." Sduiyl finds its near- 
est English word in " skulk " : 



and Schuylkill means thus, "hid- 
den creek." 

Lenni Lenape (len'nl len-a'pa) = 
original men. 

Cal'vert. 

Cecil (ses'il). 

Leonard (len'ard) 

Susquehanna (sus'kwe-han'a). 

Annap'olis, i.e. Ann's town. 

Albemarle (al'be-marl). 

Barbadoes (bar-ba'doz). 

Dg'lethorpe. 

Whitefield (whit'field). 

Frederica (fred'er-e'ka) . 

Altamaha (al'ta-ma-ha'). 



51. George Fox and the Quakers. — When the Puritans were 
coming into power in England, a man named George Fox went 
about the country, preaching to the people. He interrupted 
the preacher in the pulpit and the magistrate on the bench. 
He rebuked them for their sins. He spoke like one of the 
ancient prophets, and was without fear of man. He taught 
that there was no church except in the meeting together of 
friends, who spoke as each tliought himself or herself moved 
by the spirit of God. Thus there would be no bishops, or 
priests; no taxes for their support, and no sacraments. The 
only law was to be the law of love in their hearts. 

He taught, also, that there was no difference between men in 
rank; and thus he would not take off his hat to another, — 
no, not if it were Cromwell himself, because that would be a 
sign that he was a servant of Cromwell. Neither would he 

69 



70 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 

call any man by a title. Other men might address Cromwell 
as " Your Highness " ; he would use the plain " Oliver." In 
like manner he dressed himself with great plainness. He 
would not, by his clothes, seem to be richer or greater than 
other men. Since each man was to do what was right, as God 
might tell him, it would be wrong to force any one to obey ; and 
that would make an end of all wars, and armies, and prisons. 

Friends and Quakers. — These doctrines seemed to many like 
light let in upon the confusion of the time. They declared 
that Pox was right, and began to adopt his way of dress and 
speech. They called themselves Friends ; but others called 
them Quakers, because, in his preaching, Pox was wont to bid 
the people quake and tremble at the word of God. 

Persecution of the Friends. — Neither the Church-of -Engl and 
nor the Dissenters could tolerate the Friends. If the Friendsi 
were right, they were all wrong; and so they persecuted Fox 
and his associates, shutting them up in prison, or driving them 
from the country. When the Friends came to New England, 
the magistrates and ministers imprisoned them, beat them, 
drove them away, and even hanged some of them. The more 
the Friends were persecuted, the more their number grew, and 
the more determined were they to bear witness to the truth. 
They never resisted the force which was used against them, 
and they constantly put themselves in the way of punishment. 
Wherever they believed the Lord sent them to preach their 
doctrines, thither they went fearlessly. 

52. William Penn. — It was not poor and plain people alone 
who were Friends. Some were rich. Indeed, the very lives 
which the Friends led — lives of temperance and moderation 
and industry — kept them from being poor. Some even were 
of high rank ; and among these the most notable was William 
Penn. He was the son of an admiral in the English navy, 
and his early life was spent among noblemen, and at court. 
But he became a convert to the doctrines of the Friends. 

He adopted their dress and ways, spoke in their meetings, 
and used his pen in their defense. Like Fox and others, he 




William Penn. Born 1644 ; died 1718. 



72 DISCOVERT AND SETTLEMENT, 

was fined and imprisoned. He was, however, a rich man, for 
his father had died and left him a great estate. He had 
many friends at conrt and in places of power. Tims he was of 
more importance than most Quakers, and not so easily perse- 
cuted. He was, besides, very wise in his dealings with others, 
and, being very generous, he constantly befriended his poorer 
brethren. 

53. New Jersey. — An opportunity occurred by which he 
became interested in affairs in America. When the Duke of 
York took possession of New Netherland, he gave the southern 
district to two Englishmen, who named it New Jersey, since one 
of them had defended the island of Jersey, in the English Chan- 
nel, in a recent war. A number of people, both from New Eng- 
land and from England, settled there. Among them were some 
Quakers. Two of these, large landowners, had a dispute and, 
agreed to lay the matter before William Penn. Penn settled 
the dispute, and when one of the parties got into debt, he 
bought out his rights, in company with other creditors. 

The Occupation of New Jersey. — The result of this pur- 
chase was that West New Jersey, or West Jersey, as it was 
commonly called, came into the hands of Penn and a few other 
influential Friends. In 1677 they began to send out colonies 
of Friends to occupy it. The colonists landed at Newcastle 
on the Delaware, moved up the river, and made their first 
settlement at Burlington. Five years later, when 

■ new difficulties arose, the West Jersey proprietors 
bought the territory of East Jersey. 

New Jersey and New York. — But when the King of Eng- 
land withdrew the charter from New England, and sent Sir 
Edmund Andros to be governor of New England and New 
York, he took possession of New Jersey also. In 

■ 1702 New Jersey and New York were formed into 
one province, under one governor, although each colony had 

its own assembly. This continued for thirty-six 
years, when New Jersey was separated from New 
York, and had its own governor. 



TEE ENGLISH IN AMERICA. 73 

54. The Founding of Pennsylvania When William Pena in- 
herited his father's estate, he came into x)ossession of a claim 
for a large sum of money which his father held against the 
crown. Penn proposed to the government that he should be 
paid, not in money, but in a grant of land in America. He 
intended to send there colonies of Friends. The English colo- 
nies in America were all having difficulties with the Indians, 
and some members of the government looked with great con- 
tempt upon the proposal to send out these non-resisting Quakers 
to face the savage Indians. But Penn prevailed and 
obtained a charter and a large tract of land. This ' 

tract consisted of forty thousand square miles lying west of 
the Delaware for five degrees of longitude, and extending north 
and south for three degrees of latitude. Penn wished to call 
it Sylvania, or Woodland; but the king insisted on calling it 
Pennsylvania, in honor of Penn's father. 

Immigration invited. — The owner of this vast farm at once 
set about his experiments in government. He invited the aid 
of all who were ready to work with him. He offered to sell 
portions of his land to families who should emigrate, and he 
advertised his purpose far and wide. He was known beyond the 
borders of England; and, among others, a company of Germans 
bought a large tract. One of their first settlements was called 
Germantown. The Friends could only preach their doctrines 
in England. Here they meant to put them all in practice. 

Penn declared that every peaceful citizen was to be free to 
come and go, to worship God as he thought right, and to have 
a part in making the laws. When a person was tried for an 
offense, he was to be tried by a jury ; and if the offender were 
an Indian, he was to have six of his race on the jury. There 
was to be no punishment by death except for murder or treason. 
Lying was to be punished. As far as possible, disputes were 
to be settled by laying the matter before friends, and not by 
going into a court of justice. 

The Rights of Indians. — Penn meant himself to live there 
and manage his great property. He was to be governor, with 



74 



DISCOVERY AND ^SETTLEMENT. 



the right to appoint a deputy governor. But the people were 
to choose delegates to an Assembly and Council. The rights 
of Indians were to be respected; and they had, Penn said, 
rights to the land. King Charles had granted Pennsylvania to 
Penn. In return he was to give the king each year two beaver 
skins, and one fifth of all the gold and silver that was mined. 




Philadelphia, 1682, with Perm's House. 



But Penn declared that 
the savages who roamed 
over the country were the 
real owners of the land, 
and he meant to pay them 
also. 

The Dutch and Swedes. — In 1681 three vessels left England 
with emigrants Avho were the first to take advantage of Penn's 
offer. The next year Penn himself sailed to his new estate 
in the ship Welcome. One hundred Friends were with him, 
nearly all of whom were old neighbors. They sailed up the 
Delaware and landed at Newcastle, October 27, 1682. Penn 
confirmed the titles of the Dutch and Swede settlers to land 



THE ENGLISH IN AMERICA. 



75 



and office, and adopted them into liis colony. Then he went 
up the river to Upland, now Chester, and there held his first 
Assembly. He expected to make this place the site of his 
chief town, but, going farther up the river, he found a more 
convenient spot. 

Philadelphia. — There was a broad tongue of land lying be- 
tween two rivers, the Delaware and the Schuylkill. Upon this 
plain Penn laid out Philadelphia in broad squares, shaded by 
trees, and ordered a house built for his own use. The town, 
as first laid out, extended from river to river, and was between 
what are now Vine and South streets. 




Treaty Elm in 1800, 

55. Treaties with the Indians — For two years Penn remained 
in the country, to look after his colony. His special business 
was to make friends with the Indians. A monument in Phil- 
adelphia marks the spot called by the Indians Shackamaxon, 
where, under a spreading elm, Penn is said to have made a 
formal treaty with the Indians. By this treaty he paid them 
for the land which he had taken, and made them presents. 
Keither Penn nor his companions carried any weapons, and 
the Indians laid aside their arms. It was a treaty of peace, 
and was honorably kept on both sides for sixty years. 



76 DISCOVERT AND* SETTLEMENT. 

The Lenni Lenape. — The Indians of that region were the 
Delawares, or the Lenni Lenape, as they called themselves. 
They had recently been conquered by the savage Iroquois, and 
compelled by Indian usage to bear the name of " women," and 
to surrender their tomahawks. Now the Iroquois, as we have 
seen, were enemies of the French and friends of the English, so 
that the Delawares did not dare offend their neighbors. The 
Friends, on their side, by their peaceful ways and honest deal- 
ings, were able to live in harmony with the red men. 

The country about Philadelphia was exceedingly fertile. 
This fact, with the wise laws and liberal policy of Penn, made 
the colony very popular ; so that when Penn returned to Eng- 

^on^ land fifty townships had been settled, and Philadel- 
phia had between three hundred and four hundred 
houses. In 1703 the people occupying the district known 
as the Territories and comprising what is now known as 
Delaware, separated from Pennsylvania, and had their own 
Assembly. The two colonies had, however, the same gov- 
ernor. 

56. The Calverts At the time when the Puritans were 

flocking to Massachusetts Bay to escape from evils in England, 
England was scarcely a more comfortable place for Eoman 
Catholics, who were feared by some and hated by others. 
One of their number, George Calvert, Lord Baltimore, deter- 
mined to plant a colony in America which should serve as a 
refuge for his brethren. 

Experimental Voyages. — He tried Newfoundland, which had 
been described by voyagers as a fertile and beautiful land, 
but he found the country bleak, and sailed farther south to 
Virginia. The Assembly was sitting at Jamestown 
when he arrived, but it did not welcome him though 
he had been an influential member of the Virginia company; 
for in Virginia, as in England, Puritans and Eoman Catholics 
were equally disliked. He sailed up Chesapeake Bay, and 
was so delighted with the country that he resolved to plant 
his colony there. 



THE ENGLISH IN AMERICA. 



77 



Founding of Maryland. — King Charles I. granted him and 
his heirs a charter, in 1G32, with authority to occupy what is 
now Maryland and part of Delaware. The name "Maryland" 
was given by the king in honor of his wife Henrietta Maria. 
The Baltimores were to rule there much as the king rules in 
England, with an assembly like Parliament. The laws were 
to agree with the laws of England, and nothing was to be done 
offensive to the Church 
of England. George 
Calvert died while the 
charter was in the 
king's hands; but his 
son Cecil succeeded 
him, and carried out 
his plans. 

In the autumn of 
1633 Cecil sent out, 
under his brother Leon- 
ard, the first company, 
of about three hundred 
people, Avho made a 
settlement, called St. 
Mary's, near the mouth 
of the Potomac Kiver. 
The many names of 
places in Maryland be- 
ginning with "Saint" 
attest the large element of religion which entered into the 
settlement. Indeed, the zealous priests who accompanied the 
settlers looked upon the country as the land of the Virgin 
Mary. 

Religious Toleration. — The Calverts were wise and far- 
sighted men. They wished to have a prosperous and peaceful 
colony, and they knew this could not be if they favored one 
religious party above another. They sent out both Protestants 
and Eoman Catholics, and they caused laws to be passed for- 




Cecil Calvert, Lord Baltimore. 



78 DISCOVERY AND 'SETTLEMENT, 

bidding persecution for religious faith. Quakers, even, were 
to have all the rights of other Englishmen. When Puritans 
in Virginia were vexed by the harsh governor, Sir William 
Berkeley, they found a hospitable refuge in Maryland. 

The colony contained many who sustained the Calverts in 

their policy, and the governor was careful not to offend the 

ruling powers in England. When Cromwell was in 

■ power. Lord Baltimore appointed a Puritan governor, 

William Stone. 

57. The mode of life in Maryland was similar to that in Vir- 
ginia. There were large plantations upon which tobacco was 
grown. Whatever the planter needed, beyond food and 
shelter, was brought from England. But after the begin- 
ning of 1700 the people began also to raise wheat like their 
northern neighbors. The country at the back of the seacoast 
was more suited to grain than to tobacco, and tobacco im- 
poverished the soil very fast. Then the Susquehanna Piver 
offered a natural waterway from Pennsylvania; so commerce 
sprang up. 

Towns in the Colony. — There was a greater variety of occu- 
pations and trades, and towns began to be formed. Provi- 
dence was the name of a settlement which was the center of 
the Puritan population. Afterward, when for twenty -four 
years Maryland was under royal government, the 
* name was changed to Annapolis and the place made 
the capital. In 1729 Baltimore was founded, and speedily 
became one of the most important towns in the country. 

The Boundaries of Maryland Avere long a matter of dispute. 
The Dutch and Swedes had upon the Delaware Eiver settle- 
ments which belonged to Maryland by the charter given to 
Calvert. When the Dutch lost New ISTetherland, they lost 
also this part of their territory. Then Penn claimed the same 
portion under his charterj and afterward Delaware was set off 
as a separate colony. It was not until 1760 that the boundary 
dispute between Maryland and Pennsylvania was settled, and 
a careful survey begun. The northern boundary line of Mary- 



THE ENGLISH IN AMERICA. 79 

land has ever since been known, from its surveyors, as Mason 
and Dixon's Line.^ 

58. The Government of Virginia When Virginia hekl its 

first Assembly, the colony was still under the government of 
the London Company for Virginia. That company 

was composed largely of Englishmen who opposed 
the king. As they demanded a free Parliament for England, 
so they insisted that Virginia should have its regular Assem- 
bly. One result of the conflict going on in England was an im- 
petus given to the colonization of Virginia, which was looked 
upon as a refuge from an oppressive government at home. 

In the struggle which followed, the king took away the 
charter from the company, and after that he himself appointed 
the governor of Virginia. But since the colony still 
had its Assembly, it was better off than before. The 
company, when the colony was fairly established, was more 
likely to be a hindrance than a help. No body of men, how- 
ever upright, could govern wisely a growing colony across the 
ocean. 

59. Plantation Life Virginia was growing rapidly. The 

settlements were at first confined to the peninsula between the 
James and the York. Here the planters lived in comfort in 
roomy houses, surrounded, for protection against the Indians, 
by palisades. Their chief business was to raise tobacco to 
send to London; for this they employed indented servants 
and African slaves. The indented servants were men and 
boys sent out from England by the company. They were 
bound out to the planters for a term of years to repay the 
expense of their passage. In 1619 twenty African slaves were 
brought into the colony ; thirty years later, there were three 
hundred. 

There were no large towns in Virginia. Each planter had 
his estate, and lived there as English gentlemen lived in 
England. He had a warehouse in which he stored his tobacco, 
and a wharf to which once a year a ship came to be loaded. 

1 Rob of the Bowl, by J. P. Kennedy, gives pictures of early Maryland life. 



80 DISCOVERY AND* SETTLEMENT. 

The ship carried tobacco to London, and brought back what- 
ever the planter needed. Not only was tobacco the staple 
product of the country, it served as currency in mercantile 
transactions. The planters kept their accounts in it; salaries 
and taxes were paid with it. The chief value of Virginia, in 
the eyes of England, was that she could furnish the mother 
country with tobacco. 

60. English Parties in Virginia. — Unlike the people of New 

England, the planters of Virginia were mostly Church-of- 

England men, and partisans of the king. When Charles I. 

was executed, great numbers of his friends came over 

"1 O/ Q 

• to Virginia and began life again there. Yet there 
were many also in the colony who sympathized with Cromwell 
and the Commonwealth ; some of these had come to Virginia 
from New England. Living as these Englishmen did, each 
on his separate estate, with servants and slaves, and having 
their own Assembly, they governed themselves, and were very 
jealous of their rights. 

The Royalists. — But they were so loyal to the king that 
when Charles I. was executed, they declared it was treason to 
question the right of Charles II. to the throne. Parliament 
therefore sent a force to subdue the colony. There were some 
who favored resistance; but wiser counsels prevailed, and the 
colony was governed by the Puritans so long as England was 
a Commonwealth. The royalist party, however, was strong, 
and it had large accessions from England. Just as thousands 
of Puritans left England for New England in the reign of 
Charles I., so thousands of royalists came over to Virginia 
when Cromwell was Protector; it was even proposed at one 
time to set up there the banner of King Charles IT., before 
England recalled him. 

The formal name of Virginia was the Colony and Dominion 
of Virginia. When England called itself a Commonwealth, 
the royalists in Virginia spoke proudly and affectionately of 
their country as the Old Dominion of the king. There was 
great rejoicing among them when Charles II. was crowned, 



THE ENGLISH IN AMERICA. 81 

and Virginia came again under a royalist governor, Sir Wil- 
liam Berkeley. For a time the king's partisans had 
things very much their own way. The Assembly, 
instead of being reelected every two years, continued to sit 
without change. 

The same persons held office and controlled the colony. 
They came to regard the offices as belonging to them, and 
used them as a means of getting rich. The laws which 
England made to regulate trade with Virginia were very 
severe upon the planters. Every ship laden with tobacco 
had to pay a heavy duty before it left Virginia, and another 
when it reached England. By the Navigation Act the planter 
could send his tobacco to none but English ports. 

61. Bacon's Rebellion. — When the people had borne these 
evils until they seemed intolerable, a new danger arose. The 
Indians on the Potomac River were drawn into a quarrel with 
the English. What at first was a petty dispute 
became rapidly a general outbreak. The people, 
already discontented with Sir William Berkeley and his asso- 
ciates, found fresh cause for complaint; they said that the 
government did not protect them. 

A young planter, Nathaniel Bacon, demanded a commission 
to raise troops against the Indians. The governor refused to 
give it, and Bacon put himself at the head of a company with- 
out the governor's consent. For a summer Virginia was en- 
gaged in civil war, with Berkeley, representing the king, at 
the head of one party, and Bacon, representing the people, at 
the head of the other. There was some fighting, and 
Jamestown was burned. But the death of Bacon 
deprived the opposition of their leader, and the rebellion 
faded out. The rebellion had apparently accomplished noth- 
ing, but it showed the temper of the Virginia people. 

62. Growth of Virginia. — In spite of the severity of the 
English laws, Virginia steadily grew stronger and richer. 
The plantations spread farther into the interior. Each 
planter was like a governor upon his own plantation; and the 



82 DISCOVERT AND* SETTLEMENT. 

liabit of ruling servants and slaves made liim resolute and 
independent. All the planters together formed a class like 
the nobles in other countries. Thus in the Assembly the 
planters often found themselves upon one side, and the gov- 
ernment and king's officers on the other. The planters learned 
more and more to act together, and to resist whatever threat- 
ened to injure their prosperity or lessen their rights.^ 





Virginia Halfpenny. Lord Baltimore Shilling. 

Colonial Currency. 

63. Carolina. — To the south of Virginia lay a country which 
extended to the Spanish settlements in Florida. Now and 
then an adventurous Virginian planter pushed his way south- 
ward and settled on the shores of Albemarle Sound. The 
Virginian Assembly made grants of land there to emigrants ; 
they did not pay much attention to the fact that Charles I. 
had already given away the country to some English 
~ noblemen. These noblemen had done nothing for the 
territory except to name it Carolina, after the king, a 
name changed by the grants of Charles II. to its present form. 
The Northern Settlements. — Some New England men had 
settled on the Cape Fear River, but had become discouraged 
and gone away, leaving the clearing to some people from the 
,««.. Barbadoes Islands. When Charles 11. came to the 
throne he made a fresh grant of the country to certain 
gentlemen of his court. The Proprietors, as they were 
called, appointed a governor and called an Assembly. They 

1 A readable history of the State, especially in the early period, is that by 
John Esten Cooke, Virginia, in American Commomoealths. 



THE ENGLISH IN AMERICA. 83 

encouraged emigration; and the two colonies, the Albemarle 
and Cape Fear, became the chief centers of population. 
For the most part, a scattered population cultivated ■'■"°'^* 
small farms in a rude way. The people were sturdy and inde- 
pendent. 

The Southern Settlements. — In the southern part of Caro- 
lina the Proprietors wished to gather the settlers about 
some chief town. After ten years of experimenting, they 
fixed upon the site of the present city of Charleston.^ 
Charleston was long the extreme southern settlement. 
There was no continuous line of settlements connecting it with 
Virginia ; the only travel by land was by an Indian trail ; the 
way by sea round Cape Hatteras was hazardous, and the colony 
had thus much more direct intercourse with England than it 
had with the other American colonies. 

A connection was kept up with the English settlements 
in the West Indies. The Barbadoes Islands formed a stop- 
ping place on the way from England; the Proprietors had 
established a colony there in which African slavery Avas a 
regular part. South Carolina was largely settled at first by 
colonists from the Barbadoes who brought this system with 
them. 

Charleston. — For many years Charleston was practically all 
of South Carolina there was, and after the back country began to 
be settled, it was governed from Charleston. In this way, there 
grew up a compact society, and the colony, unlike the others, 
was under the control of a few prominent families. The 
planters who had estates on the seacoast or in the back coun- 
try made their home in Charleston, and left their estate in 
charge of overseers. In the immediate neighborhood there 
were also plantations where the i)lanters themselves lived, 
while the huts of their slaves formed villages about the great 
houses. 

Social Life. — Thus in Charleston and its neighborhood there 
was a rich class, enjoying one another's society and having 

1 The name as first used was Charles Town. 



84 DISCOVERY AND* SETTLEMENT. 

abundant leisure. Half of the population of Charleston was 
made up of slaves who performed all the manual labor. They 
were the mechanics also. The chief product of the colony 
was rice ; but it was not sent direct from each plantation to 
England, as was the case with tobacco in Virginia. The rice 
was sold to merchants in Charleston, who shipped it and 
brought back English goods and luxuries, which they sold in 
turn to the planters. 

64. A Royal Province. — The nearness of the Spanish posses- 
sions led to many conflicts. Pirates, too, infested the coast, 
making use of the harbors and inlets. There Avere frequent 
wars with the Indians ; and many of the captives, especially 
in the early years of the colony, were sold into slavery. The 
troubles with Spaniards and with pirates led the English gov- 
ernment to interfere with the government conducted by the 
Proprietors. The crown bought the rights of the Proprietors, 
and, in 1729, divided Carolina into two provinces. North Caro- 
lina and South Carolina. After this the governor of each 
province was appointed by the king, while each had its 
Assembly chosen by the people. 

New Settlers. — Early in the history of South Carolina, French 
Huguenots, driven from their own country, formed settlements 
in the colony. At first the English distrusted them, and refused 
to give them the rights they themselves enjoyed. Afterward 
the colony was more liberal. It invited men of all religious 
faiths ; and many Germans came, as well as men from Scot- 
land and the north of Ireland. These last settled also in 
North Carolina. The difficulties which South Carolina had 
with the Spaniards in Florida were lessened when the country 
between began to be settled. 

65. Oglethorpe and the Founding of Georgia. — When the Caro- 
linas became provinces of the king, the country beyond the 
Savannah River was not included in South Carolina. It was 
named Georgia from George II., who was King of England at 
the time. It was in his reign that the first settlement of 
Georgia was made. 



THE ENGLISH IN AMEBICA. 



85 



James Oglethorpe,^ a humane Englishman, was distressed by 
the miserable condition of many of his countrymen. He pitied 
especially those who were oppressed by the harsh laws against 
debtors ; and he determined to make a colony in America, 
where they could begin life anew. He formed an association 
which was to be governed by a Board of Trustees, and ob- 
tained from the king a charter, which gave them possession of 
Georgia for twenty-one 
years. 

The Wesleys and 
Whitefield. — He select- 
ed the best 
colonists he 
could find, and sailed 
for Charleston. Thence 
he carried his company 
to the Savannah River, 
and laid the founda- 
tions of the city of Sa- 
vannah. He returned 
to England for more 
colonists ; and with 
him, when he came 
back, were Charles 
Wesley, who was his 
secretary, and John 
Wesley, who came as a 
missionary to the Indians. Afterward George Whitefield came 
for a time. These were famous preachers, with whom the 
Methodist movement began in England. They did not stay 
long in Georgia, but they attracted attention to the colony. 

Enlargement of Georgia. — Large numbers of people joined 
the colony from England and from Germany. Oglethorpe 
was governor, and showed the greatest energy in planning for 




James Oglethorpe. Born 1689 ; died 1785. 



1 See Life of General Oglethorpe by Henry Bruce in Make 
series. 



of America 



86 DISCOVEE Y ANI^ SETTLEMENT. 

the welfare of the settlements. He was especially desirous of 
bringing out emigrants who were familiar with different forms 
of industry. He occupied new points at Darien, Augusta, and 
Frederica, on an island at the mouth of the Altamaha. 

In 1739 war broke out between England and Spain, and the 
American settlements at the South were in great danger. A 
fleet of Spanish vessels with five thousand men appeared off the 
coast and threatened Frederica. General Oglethorpe, with only 
eight hundred men, attacked the invaders and saved the colony. 
At the end of twenty-one years the Trustees found themselves 
beset with difficulties in governing a distant colony. They gave 
up their possessions to the crown, and Georgia was 
ruled like other parts of America, — by a governor 
appointed by the king, and an Assembly chosen by the people. 

QUESTIONS. 

What did George Fox do and teach ? What was his success in making 
converts ? How did the Church of England men and the Dissenters treat 
the Friends, and with what result ? Who was William Penn ? How did 
he become interested in this country ? When the Friends sent colonies 
to this country, where did they settle ? What did Andros do when he 
became governor ? What was the final settlement of the New York and 
New Jersey affair ? 

What grant was made to Penn, and why ? What did Penn do with his 
land ? What rules were adopted for the government of the colony ? 
How did Penn treat the Indians ? What was to be given to the king each 
year ? Why ? What emigrants came in 1681 and 1682 ? What settle- 
ment was made, and where ? What is said of the tree shown in the 
picture ? Of what tribe were the Indians, and why were they so friendly ? 
What is said of the condition of the colony when Penn left it ? 

Why did Lord Baltimore sail for America ? What difficulties did he 
find in selecting a place of settlement ? Give an account of the charter 
granted. Where was a colony planted, and by whom ? What was the 
reason for naming the country Maryland ? What arrangements were 
made by the Calverts in regard to religion ? What troubles arose ? How 
did Lord Baltimore avoid trouble with Cromwell ? How long did the 
Calvert family hold control of the colony ? Why were there more towns 
in Maryland than in Virginia ? What is said of the boundary troubles ? 
How and when were these difficulties finally settled ? 



THE ENGLISH IN AMERICA. 87 

What is meant by the terra, Old Dominion ? Why did Virginia find it 
easy to have an assembly ? How did the company lose its charter ? the 
effect? Describe the planter's life, and his mode of doing business. 
Why was Virginia more loyal than New England ? How was the feeling 
shown ? What was done by Parliament ? What is said of the office 
holders? How did the Navigation Laws affect Virginia? What out- 
break in 1676 ? What brought on Bacon's rebellion ? What is said of the 
prosperity of Virginia ? 

How came the Carolinas to be so named ? What grants of the country 
were made ? What was finally done with it ? When was Charleston 
founded ? What connection did the colony have with northern colonies ? 
What islands in the Atlantic had close connection with South Carolina ? 
How did this city differ from others farther to the north ? What was 
the staple product of the colony ? What troubles did the colonists 
have ? What did the British government finally do ? When was Caro- 
lina divided into two provinces ? What new emigrants came to North 
Carolina ? Who settled the country between South Carolina and Florida ? 
What was his object ? When was Savannah founded ? Who came as 
emigrants to Oglethorpe's colony ? The picture shows him to be a 
soldier ; how did he prove that he was so ? What difficulties did the 
Proprietors have, and what was finally done ? 

SEARCH QUESTIONS. 

What is the meaning of the name, Philadelphia ? Name some places 
in Maryland beginning with "St." Where does Whitefield lie buried? 

SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. 

Composition : 

A contrast between Massachusetts Bay Colony and Virginia Colony. 

7 «BATE: 

Besolved, That Bacon's rebellion was justifiable. 



CHAPTER VI. 



THE STRUGGLE FOR POSSESSION OF A CONTINENT. 



Cordon (cor'don). A chain. 

Alleghany (al'e-ga'ny). 

Schenectady (ske-nek'ta-de). 

Armistice (ar'mis-tis). A cessa- 
tion from fighting, by agreement 
of the parties in conflict. 

Monongahela. 

Kanawha (ka-na'wa). 

Du Quesne (du kan'). 

Militia (mi-lish'a). A body of citi- 



zen soldiery, trained to bear 
arms, but called out for ser- 
vice only in special emergencies ; 
distinguished from professional 
soldiers, sometimes called regu- 
lars. 

Minas (me'nas). 

Montcalm (mont-kam'). 

Pon'tiac. 

Bouquet (boo-ka'). 



66. The Difference between the English and the French Settle- 
ments. — By natural boundaries, and by a cordon of military 
posts, the French country of Canada and the Great West was 
separated from the northern English possessions. The Alle- 
ghany and Cumberland Mountains and the Blue Eidge formed 
another barrier, extending far down toward the Gulf of Mexico. 
The English occupied the long strip of Atlantic coast, and their 
settlements at one point and another brought them into the 
neighborhood of the French. 

There was, however, this difference between the occupation 
of the land by the two nations. The English planted colo- 
nies of men and women who made homes for themselves, 
tilled the soil, carried on trade, had their schools and 
churches, formed towns, and took an active part in the gov- 
ernment ; as the land was taken up, newcomers pushed on into 
the wilderness, felling the forests, and establishing new set- 
tlements. The French, on the other hand, set up, as we have 
seen, trading posts, forts, and mission stations. 

About each of these widely separated places gathered a few 




St. A ug'istins 



ENOH POSSESSIONS 

MERICAATTHE Queb^ 

ICH AND INDIAN WAR. 

L Charter Claims. 
J 00 Miles 



-Tadousa 



G-urif of j3 

t.[\L a IV re lice Lo Oa 




THE STRUGGLE FOR A CONTINENT. 



89 




The Eock of Quebec, 



families, but for the most part the colonists were made up of 
men, adventurous, brave, and restless; they plunged into the 
woods and consorted with the Indians, but there was little of 
that steady industry which made the English settlements 
strong, and there was scarcely a sign of self-government. The 
army was the power by which the governor ruled, and the 
governor was an officer of the French king. 

The English, the French, and the Indians. — The English colo- 
nies, especially the Puritan ones of the North, were very sus- 
picious of the French settlements. They had an English and a 
Protestant dislike of the Roman Catholic French; besides, they 
wanted the country which the French were holding, and the 
entire control of the fishing ground off the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 
The Indians, although they were opposed to all Europeans, 
feared and hated the English most. The English treated them 
with contempt. The farms of the colonists spoiled their hunt- 
ing ground and as fast as a colony grew it crowded them out. 

The French, with their scattered forts and trading posts, 
did not interfere so much with the Indians, and they adapted 
themselves more readily to Indian ways, living with them 
more as companions. Whenever there was war between the 



90 



DISCOVERY AND ^SETTLEMENT. 



French and the English, many Indians fought, after their own 
fashion, on one side or the other. 

With each war between France and England, the contest for 
supremacy in America grew more intense. To the English 
colonies it was not a matter of European politics, but of the 
safety of their homes. The danger from Indian attack was 
greater when the savages were led and encouraged by French 
soldiers. The French, with their military organization, had a 
great advantage over the English in any campaign. They were 
soldiers, bred to lighting. The English, for the most part, were 
farmers, who fought only when the war was brought close to 
them, and then with little military organization or discipline. 




The Attack on Schenectady.^ 

67. King William's War and Queen Anne's War. — There had 
been scattered fighting since 1689, when the Iroquois fell 
upon La Chine and committed the most terrible massacre that 
Canada had ever known. The French and Illinois Indians 
retaliated by destroying Schenectady the next year. A party 

1 So little did the garrison fear an attack that they posted 'two snow images 
for sentinels. 



THE STRUGGLE FOR A CONTINENT. 91 

of French and Indians also attacked Deerfield in Massachu- 
setts. After killing many men, women, and children, and 
burning the village, they carried the remaining inhab- 
itants into captivity. The two periods of lighting 
were called after the sovereigns of England then reigning — 
King William's War and Queen Anne's War. 

68. King George's War. — But in 1744 a series of conflicts 
began which lasted with intervals for nearly twenty years, until 
the great question whether the French or the English were to 
be masters of the continent was settled. The first important 
movement resulted in the capture of Louisburg, on 

Cape Breton Island. The French had made this 
strongly fortified place a means of controlling the fishing 
ground in the neighborhood ; and as it was captured by a New 
England expedition, aided by British ships, the achievement 
was received with enthusiasm by the colonies and with aston- 
ishment in Europe. 

The war of which this action was a part is known as King 
George's War, and came to an end in 1748. In the treaty of 
peace, Louisburg was restored to the French, to the bitter dis- 
appointment of New England. The colonies seemed to have 
gained nothing by the victory except a heavy debt, which, 
however, was soon reimbursed by Parliament, the remembrance 
of glory, and an increased confidence in their soldiers. The 
peace was of short duration. It was rather an armistice, dur- 
ing which both parties were making ready for a final contest. 

Acadia. — The English sent out a large colony to Acadia, and 
founded the town of Halifax. The French strengthened their 
settlements in the same country. The English power lay in 
its occupation of the land by x^eople rather than by forts. 
While the French were thinking to fence off the western 
country by a line of forts, the English were slowly moving 
their frontier line by an irregular march of settlers. They 
were organizing emigration companies also. 

69. The Ohio Company was formed in 1748 by gentlemen in 
Virginia and Maryland. They obtained from the king a grant 



92 



DISCOVERY AND ^SETTLEMENT. 



of five hundred thousand acres, chiefly on the south side of 
the Ohio Eiver, between the Monongahela and Kanawha. It 
was their intention to connect this country by roads with the 
two colonies. In the years immediately following they made 

surveys and established a few settle- 
ments. One of the surveyors was a Vir- 
ginian, named George Washington.^ 

Washington's Journey. — When ru- 
mors came that the French were en- 
croaching on this territory with their 
forts, Governor Dinwiddle of Vir- 
ginia sent Washington to look into 
the matter. He brought back such 
a report of the activity of the French 
that the Virginia Assembly at once 
took measures to build a fort at the 
junction of the Monongahela and 
Allegheny. Suddenly the 
French appeared upon the 
scene, drove away the English, and 
finished for themselves the fort, 
which they named Fort Du Quesne. 
70. The French and Indian War. — 
This Avas just before war was again 
formally declared be- 
tween England and 
France, and the colonies 
were at once aroused. 
They sent delegates to 
Albany, to a congress 
called to consult upon 
the best way of resist- 
ing the French. Here 
they met also representatives from the Indians of the Six 
Nations. William Johnson, an Englishman of great influence 
1 Thackeray's The Virginians introduces Washingtou as a young man. 




1754. 



ilJ'M #-sf 







Braddock's Koute. 



THE STRUGGLE FOR A CONTINENT. 93 

among the Indians, urged these Indians to join them against 
their old enemy the French. 

The English government sent out troops and vessels to Amer- 
ica, and appointed a commander-in-chief, General Edward 
Braddock. Braddock set out from Fort Cumberland, in Mary- 
land. He had with him English regulars, some colonial troops, 
and a few friendly Indians. Washington was on his staff. 
Braddock marched slowly, stopping to make better roads and 
erect earthworks. He followed the methods of marching and 
fighting to which he was used, and paid no attention to the 
advice of Washington and others who knew the ways of the 
country. The French, with their Indian allies, kept them- 
selves informed of every movement that Braddock made. 

Braddock's Defeat. — The English general was cautiously 
moving along and preparing to lay siege to the fort, accord- 
ing to the regular rules, when suddenly, soon after crossing a 
ford, his army was surprised by Indians, and by French who 
fought in the manner of Indians. The English were utterly 
defeated. Braddock was mortally wounded. He 
transferred his command to Washington, and died y/p.^:' 
overwhelmed with remorse. Washington led back 
the broken army; and the French and Indians followed up 
their victory by laying waste the back country of Virginia, 
Maryland, and Pennsylvania. 

The disaster to Braddock's army was terrible, but it had an 
important influence for good. It taught the colonies to rely 
on their own soldiers rather than on British regulars. They 
began at once to organize a militia, which was under training 
upon the battle field during the remainder of the war. This 
war is known in America as the French and Indian War.^ 

71. The Expulsion of the Acadians. — While Braddock was 
marching against Fort Du Quesne, another force was engaged 
in reducing the French forts in Acadia. That name was then 

1 Parkman's narration of Braddock's defeat is contained in No. 7 of His- 
torical Classic Readings. Cooper's The Last of the Mohicans has its scene* 
laid in the French and Indian War. 



94 



DISCOVERY AND ^SETTLEMENT. 



applied to what is now Nova Scotia and a large part of New 
Brunswick. The forts guarded the neck of land which con- 
nects the tAvo portions. The English held Nova Scotia, but 
they also claimed part of the rest of Acadia. The peninsula 
was occupied partly by French and partly by English farmers, 
but the French were more numerous. There were prosperous 
Erencn settlements about the Bay of Minas, under English 




GULF OF ST. LAWRENCE 



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Map of Acadia. 

law, but not far from the French forts. Most of the French 
Acadians were simple-minded, peaceable people, who desired 
only to live undisturbed upon their farms. But among them 
were some who were bitterly hostile to the English, and took 
every opportunity to favor the French and menace the English 
settlement at Halifax. 

When the war broke out, the danger from these increased. 
At last the English authorities determined to solve the diffi- 
culty by removing all the French families out of the country. 



THE STRUGGLE FOR A CONTINENT. 95 

It was difficult to make distinction between the peaceable 
settlers and those who caused disturbance, since these were 
sheltered by the others. The authorities called all the men 
and boys to assemble in their churches to hear a notice read. 
Then, when the churches were full, companies of soldiers sur- 
rounded them. The people within the churches were 
prisoners, and were told that they and their wives ^S^f- ' 
and children were all to be sent away. The poor 
French* had no arms, and could make no resistance. The 
English made haste and crowded them into ships to send 
them away to the other colonies. In spite of precautions, 
families were separated, and great misery fell on all the 
people. The villages were laid waste, and about six thousand 
persons were homeless.^ 

72. The Seven Years' War Everywhere, save in Acadia, the 

Erench seemed to have the advantage. There, too, at the end 
of 1757, the English were in great peril, for a powerful Erench 
fleet was gathering at Louisburg. This fleet threatened, not 
Halifax alone, but New England also. All along the frontier 
of the middle colonies the English settlers were flying before 
the Erench and Indians. 

But in the long run it is not armies that conquer, but people 
behind the armies. The Erench had this disadvantage, that 
almost all their men and supplies had to be brought from 
France. They had no great farms in America, and no flourish- 
ing colonies. They had soldiers and generals, but these had to 
be fed and supported. The English, on the other hand, while 
sending over troops from England, depended most on the strong 
colonies in America. These colonies had for a hundred years 
been growing rich, independent, and self-supporting. 

The European Conflict. — Moreover, the contest in America 
was only part of a great war in which nearly all the nations 
of Europe were involved. The war, covering the period 
1756-1763, is known in history as the Seven Years' War. 

1 The expulsion of the Acadiaus gave rise to Longfellow's well-known poem 
Evangeline. 



96 DISCOVERY AND -SETTLEMENT. 

France, Austria, and Eussia were upon one side; England 
and Prussia on the other. Two men were conspicuous in 
the struggle: Frederick the Great of Prussia, a military 
genius, and William Pitt, a masterly English statesman. 
Pitt saw more clearly than the king and other Englishmen 
what was needed in America, and how the struggle with 
France there was a part of the great world conflict that was 
going on. He was Secretary of State and the foremost man 
in the kingdom ; it was his genius that directed the war to a 
brilliant close. He had faith in the colonies, and his policy 
was a generous one. 

The Policy of Pitt. — England Avas to furnish arms and am- 
munition. The colonies were to enlist the men, clothe them, 
and pay them. England was to provide the generals and 
division officers; but the colonial troops might choose their 
own colonels and subordinate officers. The generals and naval 
commanders whom Pitt appointed were abler men than those 
who had heretofore been sent to America. A new campaign 
was planned; but the points of attack were the same, for the 
strong points of the French position were Louisburg, Ticon- 
deroga. Crown Point, and Fort Du Quesne. 

The Campaigns. — The first move was by a combined naval 
and land attack under Sir Jeffrey Amherst against Louisburg. 

In less than two months this important place was 
1758 ' ^^P^^i'^^j ^^cl six thousand prisoners taken. New 

England was overjoyed that this prize was again in her 

possession. The movement against Ticonderoga at the same 

1758 ^i^"® resulted in a serious defeat of the English; 

but Fort Du Quesne was taken, and renamed Fort 

Pitt. Fort Frontenac was destroyed and Fort Niag- 
ara captured. Then Amherst took the field at Lake George, 
and drove the French from Ticonderoga and Crown Point. 
This brilliant series of successes was due partly to the energy 
of Pitt, partly to the steady decrease of the French resources. 
France was becoming nerveless under a corrupt government, 
and gave its American settlements but little substantial aid. 



THE STRUGGLE FOR A CONTINENT. 



97 



73. The Capture of Quebec The French had been crowded 

back into Canada, and the next summer the English prepared 
to advance upon Quebec, the stronghold of the country. From 
Louisburg a fleet bearing eight thousand men moved up the 
St. Lawrence and dropped anchor before Quebec. Outside the 
fortifications on that great rock, Montcalm lay with his army. 
The commander of the English forces was a brave young gen- 
eral, James Wolfe, who 
had taken part in the 
siege of Louisburg. He 
was the idol- of his sol- 
diers, but he was of 
feeble frame, wasted by 
disease. He saw before 
him the frowning cliff 
of Quebec, and he knew 
that every point was 
guarded by the enemy. 
He made one desperate 
and disastrous attempt 
to capture the outworks 
near Montmorenci. The 
failure proved that the 
only chance lay in sur- 
prising the enemy and 
reaching the heights 
from the river. 

Wolfe's Stratagem. — 
Accordingly AVolfe divided his army. He left a portion to 
make a feint of attacking Quebec upon the north side, where 
the St. Charles Eiver separates the rock from the mainland. 
Then he sent his ships and transports up the St. Lawrence, 
while he marched the remainder of his army along the south- 
ern bank out of reach of the enemy's guns.. When he had 
passed the town, he reembarked his soldiers on board the 
vessels, and waited his opportunity. About two hours before 




Wolfe's Cove. 



98 



DISCO VER Y AND . SETTLEMENT. 



daybreak, thirty barges, bearing sixteen hundred soldiers, 
dropped silently down the stream to a cove where a narrow 
path led up a wooded defile in the steep hillside. 

Sentinels challenged the boats at one or two points as they 
passed down ; but they were answered in French, and made to 
believe that they were boats which were expected with provi- 
sions for the besieged town. Some of the men sprang ashore and 
seized the sentinel at the foot of the pass. Then they scram- 
bled up the height and captured the guard which was posted 
at the head. The rest of the troops climbed rapidly 
1759 ' ^P *^^ pass. The ships dropped down the stream 
with reenf orcements ; and when the sun arose the 
British army was drawn up in line upon the Plains of Abra- 
ham behind the town, and partly intrenched. 

The Battle of the Plains of Abraham. — The French looking 
out from the walls could scarcely believe their eyes. Mont- 

calm and the bulk of the 

French army were upon 
the other side of the St. 
Charles River, where they 
had been stationed in a 
fortified camp which ex- 
tended along the river, to 
prevent the English from 
approaching the town 
from that quarter. He 
brought them hastily 
over, led them through 
the town to the plain, and 
at once attacked the English. The English met the attack 
with coolness ; they waited until the French were within forty 
yards ; then they fired. 

The ranks of the French were at once broken, and Wolfe, 
dashing to the front, led his men in a fierce charge. The 
French, exhausted by their long march, turned and fled, and 
the English drove them behind the walls of the town. 







CAPTURE OF 

QUEBEC 

12 3 4 5 



THE STRUGGLE FOR A CONTINENT, 99 

Deaths of Wolfe and Montcalm. — Almost at the same mo- 
ment both Wolfe and Montcalm fell, mortally wounded. 
Wolfe lived to hear that the French were everywhere giving 
way, and to issue his final orders. Montcalm, borne to the 
hospital, sank into despair, comforted only by the thought 
that he should not live to see the surrender of Quebec. He 
di^d of a broken heart as much as of his wounds. The French, 
shut up in the town, their brave commander gone, laid down 
their arms, and the English took possession of Quebec. The 
diminished French army gathered at Montreal. Some fighting 
followed; but the English brought their forces from Oswego, 
from Crown Point, and from Quebec; and September, 1760, 
Montreal surrendered.^ 

74. A treaty of peace was signed at Paris early in 1763. 
France gave up to Great Britain Canada and all her posses- 
sions east of the Mississippi, except two little islands near 
Newfoundland, which she kept for fishing stations; except, 
also, New Orleans and the district about it. Spain, the ally 
of France, gave up Florida to Great Britain. On the same 
day France secretly made over to Spain all that she claimed 
under the name of Louisiana, and also New Orleans, and the 
district about it. 

75. Pontiac's War New France disappeared from the map 

of North America, and England was supreme save in a vaguely 
known region to the west of the Mississippi which Spain 
nominally held. But the French inhabitants remained in 
Canada; and in the west, although the forts had passed into 
English hands, the traders and traffickers were French. The 
Indians, meanwhile, were not ready to see the country which 
they regarded as their own transferred by a stroke of the pen 
from one European power to another. It was one thing to 
have the French trading among them; another to have the 
hated English occupying their lands. 

A remarkable^ man named Pontiac, an Ottawa chief, now 

1 Ther^V?a]FwTiich closed with the surrender of Montreal is graphically nar- 



j Tag^.'hj 'Pav'k.ma.n in his Montcalm and Wolfe. 

LofC. 



100 DISCOVERY AND 'SETTLEMENT. 

made a final stand against the power which threatened the 
Indian race. He succeeded in forming a league of almost all the 
tribes, though Johnson, who had been made Sir William, pre- 
venced the greater part of the Six Nations from joining Pon- 
tiac. The Indians captured and destroyed eight of the twelve 
forts, but failed in their attempt upon the important posts of 
Detroit and Fort Pitt, now Pittsburg. 

Rogers and Bouquet. — For three years they waged war on 

the frontier; but the English were led by two notable men, 

Major Eobert Eogers and Colonel Henry Bouquet, 

and, at last, so completely did they break the power 

of the tribes, that Pontiac and other chiefs met Johnson at 

Oswego, and entered into a treaty of peace with the English.^ 

1 The most thorough and absorbing account of this war is Parkman's Con- 
spiracy of Pontiac. 

QUESTIONS. 

What are natural boundaries, and what ones separated the English 
from the French? What trade was there in the French possessions 
which they wished to keep ? How did the French and English differ in 
race, religion, and politics ? What special dislike did the New England 
people have towards the French ? Through whom did the furs of the 
North and West come to New York ? Who had built La Chine ? How 
did the French avenge the attack on La Chine? Who was Fronte- 
nac ? 

In what way were the French a source of danger to the English colo- 
nists ? How was it that the French were better soldiers than the Eng- 
lish ? Name the limits in time of King William's AVar ; of Queen Anne's 
War. Did the French give these names ? Why was an attack made on 
Louisburg ? What was done with Louisburg ? How did the English 
attempt to gain possession of the country ? the French ? What was the 
period of King George's War ? of the French and Indian War ? How 
happened Washington to have anything to do with Fort Du Quesne ? 
What council was held? What was the plan of campaign? Tell the 
story of Braddock's defeat. 

Why were regular troops poorly fitted for Indian warfare ? Where 
was Acadia ? Describe the country and its inhabitants. Why were the 
Acadians not allowed to remain upon their farms ? Describe the action 
of the English authorities. What became of the people that were forced 



THE STRUGGLE FOR A CONTINENT. 101 

from their home ? What was the Seven Years' War in Europe ? What 
two men stand out in the great struggle ? 

What was the condition of the French in 1768 ? the English ? Who 
was William Pitt ? What did he do to carry on the war ? What was 
the plan of campaign ? What was the result ? Who took command 
of the expedition from Louisburg ? Describe the man. What was the 
result of the first attack on Quebec ? Give an account of the change of 
plan, the surprise, and the battle. Tell the stoiy of Wolfe and Montcalm. 
When did Montreal surrender ? 

By the treaty of 17G3 what territory was given up by France, and what 
was retained ? How did the Indians look upon these changes ? Who 
was Pontiac, and what were his plans ? What other Indian chief had 
formed a similar plot, and with what result ? What were Pontiac's 
first successes ? Who opposed him ? What prevented the Iroquois from 
joining the other tribes ? How did the war end ? What three English- 
men were conspicuous in Pontiac's War ? 



SEARCH QUESTIONS. 

Who built Fort Necessity ? Give the story connected with this fort. 
What events in Europe were connected with King William's War? 
Queen Anne's War ? King George's War ? By what name was each of 
these wars known in Europe ? What place has been called the Gibraltar 
of America ? When was held the first American congress ? Where was 
it held, and what colonies sent delegates to it? What became of the 
Acadians after their dispersion ? What well-known Acadian names are 
to be found and where ? Who commanded the expedition against Louis- 
burg? What was the title of William Pitt after he was raised to the 
peerage ? What poem did Wolfe recite as he was rowed up the river to 
Wolfe's cove ? 



SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. 

Compositions : 

The surprise of Schenectady. 

The attack on Deerfield. 

Describe the burning of the village of Grand Vr6 and the scenes ac- 
companying it. 

Contrast the characters of King Philip and Pontiac. 

Debate : 

Hesolved, That the English were justified in removing the Acadians. 



102 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT, 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS FOR REVIEW. 

I. The First Discoverers. 

1. Christopher Columbus. 

a. His preparation for his work, 1, 3. 

h. The motives which urged liim, 2, 4. 

c. His struggle for recognition, 3. 

d. His resources, 4, 5. 

e. His first voyage, 6, 7. 

/. The personal result of his enterprise, 8. 

2. John Cabot, 29. 

3. Amerigo Vespucci, 8. 

4. Ponce de Leon, 10. 

5. Balboa, 10. 

6. Magellan, 10. 

7. Verrazano, 19. 

8. Cartier, 19. 

9. De Soto, 12. 

10. Drake, 29. 

11. Hudson, 26. 
II. Great Explorers. 

1. Coronado, 12. 

2. Champlain, 20. 

3. Nicolet, Joliet, and Marquette, 23. 

4. La Salle, 24. 

III. The Natives of North America. 

1. The inhabitants of the islands, 7, 13. 

2. The Mexicans and Central Americans, 11, 13. 

3. The Pueblo Indians, 14. 

4. The Mound Builders, 14. 

5. The Indians op the North. 

a. Their appearance, 15. 

b. Their mode of life, 15. 

c. Geographical distribution, 16. 

d. General characteristics, 17. 

6. Their relations 

a. With the Spanish, 13. 

&. With the French, 21-24, 66, 67, 70, 72. 

c. With the English, 32, 35, 43, 44, 48, 54, 55, 61, 66, 70, 75. 

IV. Spain in America. 

1. Occupation of the islands, 7. 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS. 103 

2. Conquest of Mexico, 11. 

3. Results of possession, 13. 
V. France in America. 

1. Occupation of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 20. 

2. Occupation of the great lakes, 22-24. 

3. Occupation of the great valleys, 24, 69. 

4. Character of the occupation, 24, 66. 

5. Attempt at holding possession, 68, 73. 
VI. The Dutch in America, 26-28. 

VII. The Swedes in America, 28. 
VIII. England in America. 

1. Experiments, 30, 31. 

2. The first settlement, 31, 32. 

3. The development of Virginia, 58-62. 

4. New England. 

a. The Pilgrims and Plj^mouth, 33-35, 40. 

b. The Puritans and Boston, 36-39. 

c. The development of Massachusetts, 39, 49, 50. 

d. Connecticut, 40, 44, 49, 50. 

e. Rhode Island, 41. 

/. Maine and New Hampshire, 42. 

5. New York, 47, 49. 

6. New Jersey, 53. 

7. Pennsylvania, 54, 55. 

8. Delaware, 28, 55, 57. 

9. Maryland, 56, 57. 

10. The Carolinas, 63, 64. 

11. Georgia, 65. 

12. The wresting of the possessions of France, 68-73. 
IX. The Relations between England and America. 

1. The giving of charters and patents, 31, 36, 40, 42, 54, 56, 63, 

65. 

2. The withdrawal of charters, 49, 58. 

3. Parties in England and America, 45, 60. 
X. Attempts at Union in America. 

1. The United Colonies of New England, 44. 

2. The Albany Congress, 70. 
XL Conspicuous Figures. 

1. Columbus, 1-8. 4. Champlain, 20. 

2. Cortez, 11. 5. La Salle, 24. 

3. De Soto, 12. 6. Hudson, 26. 



18. 


General Braddock, 70. 


19. 


William Pitt, 72. 


20. 


General Wolfe, 73. 


r. 21. 


General Montcalm, 73. 


22. 


Pontiac, 75. 


). 23. 


Sir William Johnson, 70, 75. 



104 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 

7. Raleigh, 30. 16. James Oglethorpe, 65. 

8. Captain John Smith, 32, 34. 17. George Washington, 69, 70. 

9. Miles Standish, 35. 

10. John Winthrop, 37. 

11. Roger Williams, 41. 

12. Peter Stuyvesant, 47. 

13. King Philip, 48. 

14. William Penn, 52-55. 

15. Cecil Calvert, 56. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

Norsemen in Iceland 861 

Norsemen in America about 1000 

The Crusades 1095-1271 

Discovery of Canary Islands 1344 

Discovery of Madeira Islands 1419 

Discovery of Cape Verde Islands 1445 

Invention of printing 1440-1450 

Fall of Constantinople 1453 

Columbus set sail from Palos Aug. 3, 1492 

Columbus landed on San Salvador Oct. 12, 1492 

Vasco da Gama rounded Cape of Good Hope 1497 

John Cabot visited the coast of America 1497 

Death of Columbus 1506 

St. Lawrence Gulf explored by the French 1506 

The name America first printed 1507 

Ponce de Leon in Florida 1512 

Balboa discovered the Pacific Ocean 1513 

Conquest of Mexico by Cortez 1518-1521 

Magellan's ship sailed round the world 1519-1522 

Verrazano visited the coast of North America 1524 

Cartier took possession of the St. Lawrence 1534, 1535 

De Soto discovered the Mississippi 1541 

Persecution of Huguenots in France 1551 

First Huguenot emigration to America 1555 

Elizabeth Queen of England 1558-1603 

Ribaut's colony at Port Royal planted 1562 

Colony of Huguenots on St. John's River planted 1564 

Its destruction by the Spaniards 1565 

St. Augustine founded 1565 

Drake's voyage around the world 1577-1580 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, 105 

Sir Humphrey Gilbert's voyage to Newfoundland 1583 

Raleigh's expedition to Roanoke Island 1584 

Spanish Armada destroyed 1588 

Gosnold's visit to Cape Cod 1602 

Champlain's visit to Montreal 1603 

De Monts planted a colony in Acadie 1604 

bounding of Jamestown May 13, 1607 

Emigration of Separatists to Holland 1607, 1608 

Quebec founded by Champlain 1608 

Champlain discovered Lake Champlain 1609 

Independence of the Netherlands conceded by Spain : , 1609 

Henry Hudson ascended Hudson River 1609 

Captain John Smith explored the New England coast 1614 

The Dutch began to occupy New Netherland 1615 

Exportation of tobacco to England 1616 

First Colonial Assembly at Jamestown 1619 

First cargo of slaves brought to Virginia 1619 

Plymouth Colony begun Dec. 21, 1620 

Settlement of New Hampshire at Portsmouth and Dover 1623 

Virginia deprived of her charter and made a royal province 1624 

George Calvert visited Virginia 1628 

Massachusetts Bay Company founded 1628 

First settlement at Salem 1628 

Settlement at Boston 1630 

Settlement at Saco and Biddef ord 1630 

Settlement of York '. 1631 

Maryland granted to Lord Baltimore 1632 

Connecticut settled at Windsor, Hartford, and Wethersfield. . .1633-1636 

First settlement of Maryland 1634 

Nicolet's Journey 1634 

Harvard College founded 1636 

Providence founded by Roger AVilliams 1636 

General Court of Connecticut begun <> 1637 

Pequot War 1636, 1637 

New Haven colony founded 1638 

Settlement of the Swedes on the Delaware 1638 

War between King and Parliament 1642 

Confederation of the New England Colonies 1643 

England became a Commonwealth 1649 

First of the Navigation Acts 1650 

First settlements in North Carolina 1653 

New Amsterdam taken by the English c 1664 



106 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 

La Salle came to Canada 1666 

Marquette's discovery of the Upper Mississippi 1673 

King Philip's War 1675 

Settlement of Burlington, New Jersey 1677 

La Salle's first voyage of exploration 1678 

His descent of the Mississippi 1681, 1682 

Philadelphia founded 1682 

The Massachusetts charter revoked 1684 

La Salle's expedition to the mouth of the Mississippi 1684 

Death of La Salle 1687 

The Iroquois attack on La Chine 1689 

Seizure of Andros in Boston 1689 

Destruction of Schenectady ; 1690 

End of King William's War 1697 

D'Iberville's settlement 1699 

Queen Anne's War 1702 

Massacre at Deerfield 1704 

End of Queen Anne's War 1713 

Death of Penn 1718 

Baltimore founded 1729 

The Carolinas divided 1729 

Georgia settled by General Oglethorpe 1733 

Beginning of King George's War 1744 

First capture of Louisburg 1745 

Formation of the Ohio Company 1748 

End of King George's War 1748 

Erection of Fort Du Quesne 1754 

Congress at Albany 1754 

Braddock's defeat July 0, 1755 

Expulsion of the Acadians June-November, 1755 

Battles at Lake George Sept. 8, 1755 

Montcalm captured Fort Oswego Aug. 14, 1756 

Abercrombie repulsed at Fort Ticonderoga July 8, 1758 

Second capture of Louisburg July 26, 1758 

Capture of Fort Frontenac Aug. 27, 1758 

Capture of Fort Du Quesne Nov. 25, 1758 

Surrender of Niagara to the English July 25, 1759 

Battle of the Plains of Abraham Sept. 13, 1759 

Surrender of Montreal to the English Sept. 8, 1760 

Peace of Paris signed Feb. 10, 1763 

Battle of Bushy Run Aug. 5, 6, 1763 

Treaty of peace with Pontiac July 24, 1766 




George Wasl 
Born February 22, 1732 j died December 14, 1799. 



BOOK I. 

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 



CHAPTER I. 



THE THIRTEEN ENGLISH COLONIES. 



Dress'er. A cupboard, or set of 
shelves, for holding plates and 
dishes. 

Faneuil (Fan'el, or, as old-fash- 
ioned people in Boston pronounce 
it, Fun'el). Peter Faneuil was 
of a Huguenot family. 

Privateer'. A private vessel fitted 
out for war purposes. 



Quilting Bee. A company of neigh- 
bors met to make bedquilts for 
the family inviting them. 

Sher'iff. An officer of the sJm-e or 
county, who executes the orders 
of the court. 

Back'woodsmen. People living in 
the wilderness, away from settle- 
ments. 



1. The Settlements on the Atlantic Coast. — When the French 
lost control of that portion of North America which they had 
explored and had begun to colonize, there were thirteen sepa- 
rate English colonies which lay along the Atlantic coast. The 
strip of the continent which they occupied, except in southern 
Georgia, was separated from the interior by a mountain bar- 
rier. This barrier was not far from three hundred miles in 
width and covered with a dense forest in which the Indian 
might at any time be met. Here and there were trails through 
gaps in the ridge, but to follow these trails was a matter of 
great difficulty and peril. Only one really broad valley, that 
of the Mohawk, opened a way, but the river was not naviga- 
ble for large craft, and the region through which it passed 
was held by the Mohawk tribe of the Iroquois, the most 
powerful body of Indians east of the Mississippi. 

109 



110 ESTABLISHMENT QF THE UNION, 

The great natural entrance to the interior of the continent 
was by the broad river St. Lawrence and the chain of great 
lakes. On the other hand, the seacoast along which the 
English dwelt had good harbors, and there was a constant 
passage back and forth between the new World and the Old. 
Thus the people who lived in English settlements kept up a 
busy connection with England, buying much of what they 
needed in the old country and sending over their own prod- 
ucts, especially tobacco and lumber. Moreover, the easiest 
way of going from one colony to another was by vessels along 
the coast, and in this way, and because of the extensive fish- 
ing interests, especially in New England, which was near the 
great fishing grounds, the people were largely a seafaring 
people. 

Distribution of Population. — There were at this time not far 
from sixteen hundred thousand persons living in the thirteen 
colonies, about equally divided between the colonies north 
and south of Mason and Dixon's Line; about one fourth of 
the whole population consisted of negro slaves, and of these 
three fourths lived in the Southern colonies, the remainder 
being chiefly house servants in the North. The whites were 
for the most part of English blood, and the English language 
was the common speech; the chief exception was to be found 
in a considerable body of Germans in Pennsylvania and a 
smaller number of descendants of the Dutch in New York 
and New Jersey. There were French Huguenots in small 
numbers in most of the colonies, and notably in the Carolinas. 
They all lived under the English law, and much the largest 
part was of the Protestant faith. All the colonies had thus a 
common likeness, but there was a difference in the character of 
each. This character was determined by the kind of soil on 
which the colony was planted, by the people who formed it, 
their origin, their occupation, and their way of thinking about 
religion and government. 

2. Life in Massachusetts. — Massachusetts was the most 
northern and eastern colony. It then included what is now 



THE THIBTEEN ENGLISH COLONIES. Ill 

the State of Maine. It had a long seacoast with many excel- 
lent harbors; the interior was covered with dense forests. 
The soil was not very productive; but the land was divided 
into small farms, which by hard labor were made to yield an 
abundance. The people of the colony were descendants mainly 
of Englishmen who had come over in the first ten years after 
Winthrop and his company landed. They were farmers, who 
raised, besides what they needed themselves, hay, grain, and 
cattle. They exported these to the Southern colonies and to 
the West Indies. 

They were fishermen. A figure of a codfish hangs in the hall 
of the Massachusetts House of Eepreseutatives. It is a sign 
of what, with the Avhale fishery, was once the greatest source 
of wealth in the colony. They were shipbuilders and sailors. 
Their ships carried goods back and forth between the colonies 
and between Europe and America; they even carried goods 
from one port of Europe to another. 

They were mechanics also. They built sawmills and grist- 
mills by the banks of streams. They set up blacksmiths' 
forges, not only to shoe their horses, but to make tires for 
wagon wheels. They were coopers, and made barrels in which 
to pack fish. They made rope for their vessels. They had 
tanyards where they dressed leather. On all sides was the 
busy hum of industry. Moreover, these various occupations 
were not very carefully separated ; the same man might be by 
turns, farmer, fisherman, seaman, and mechanic. 

Mode of Life and Domestic Customs. — In the country, people 
bought few things and hired very little labor. The new settler 
cleared a place in the forest, and built his house of logs, stop- 
ping the chinks with clay; by and by, as he grew more pros- 
perous, he built a frame house. The two principal rooms in 
his house were the kitchen and the best room. In the kitchen 
was a great chimney, with a fireplace so large that there was 
room within it for seats, where the family gathered in the 
cold winter evenings. They burned huge logs which had been 
cut in the woods and hauled on sleds. 



112 ESTABLISHMENT*OF THE UNION. 

The cooking was done over a wood fire. An iron crane 
swung in the fireplace, and pothooks hung from the crane. 
The pots which hung from the hooks held the vegetables and 
the salt pork which were boiled for the dinner. It was seldom 
that the family had fresh meat, except when they shot or 
trapped game. They baked bannocks — flat cakes of rye or 
Indian meal — over the hot ashes on the hearth, and in the 
better houses a brick oven was built in the chimney. This 
was filled with hot wood coals ; and when it was thoroughly 
heated, the coals were swept out and bread or beans set to 
bake. They used wooden platters for the most part, with a 
few pewter dishes which stood in a shining row on the dresser. 

In the kitchen stood the spinning wheel, with which the 
women spun the wool and flax for family use. The loom for 
weaving was usually kept in another room. The best room 
was rarely used by the family. It was kept for company and 
special occasions. The floor was sprinkled with fine sand, and 
figures were traced on it like the figures in a modern carpet. 
Brass andirons shone in the fireplace, which in summer was 
filled with the green tops of asparagus. 

Social Habits and Distinctions of Rank. — Where all worked 
with their hands there was little difference in social rank. 
People came together for a house raising or harvest, for corn 
husking or a quilting bee. The family at whose house they 
met provided good things to eat and drink, and the day ended 
with a frolic — blindman's buff, fox and geese, and other 
sports. People knew each other familiarly in both work and 
play. 

There were some distinctions made. The minister was the 
great man of the place. He had his farm, like others, and 
worked with his hands ; but he was looked up to as a man of 
learning and piety. He was a college-bred man, and often 
prepared the boys of his parish for college. He was the leader 
of the church; and the church was the highest institution in 
the colony. In the church, people were placed according to 
their dignity. The deacons sat in front, near the pulpit. The 



THE THIBTEEN ENGLISH COLONIES. 113 

minister's family, the magistrates, and the chief farmers had 
the best seats given them. Often families were angry because 
they were not given seats as good as they thought they should 
have.^ Except in one or two large towns, the only church 
was what is now known as the Congregational. 

Civil Government. — However lonely separate farms might 
be, each was included in some town.^ The meeting house was 
at the center of the town, and there also were the country 
store and the blacksmith's shop. The schoolhouse was some- 
times there ; but that was built in the place most convenient 
for the families whose children went to it. Once a year, at 
least, a town meeting was held. The men chose the officers 
of the town for the next year and decided all questions which 
came up about the affairs of the town, such as schools, roads, 
and taxes. 

They also chose persons to represent the town in the Great 
and General Court, which met at Boston. Thus the people 
discussed the affairs of the whole colony as well as those of 
the town. Their representatives, when they went to Boston, 
knew how their neighbors felt and thought about public affairs. 
The town meetings of Boston were especially important, be- 
cause that was the chief town and the seat of government. 
They were held in Faneuil Hall, — a building given by Peter 
Faneuil, a citizen of Boston. In the town meeting the people 
learned to govern themselves. Every voter used his vote. 
He knew the rules of debate, and he made his opinion known. 
There was free discussion, and the people were quick to learn 
the meaning of every law which was passed. 

1 In college, students were arranged in the catalogue according to their 
social position, and had corresponding rights and privileges. Yale College 
adopted the alphabetical order in 1768, and Harvard followed five years later. 

2 The town in New England differs from the township of the West, of which 
an explanation will TSe found on p. 231. Geographically, the boundaries of a 
'Sew England town are irregular, being determined partly by natural objects, 
partly by surveys made from time to time to fix the limits of'grants of land or 
settlements made by the first inhabitants. Its origin was in the company of 
people who formed a church, and were set off thus from similar companies. 
But a town once formed, other churches might be formed in the same town. 

1 



114 



ESTABLISHMENT QF THE UNION. 




Faneuil Hall, 1763. 

Country and Town Life. — There was a marked difference 
between the life of the merchant class in the towns and that 
of the farmers. Spacious houses, often of brick, stood in 
large gardens and were furnished well. The growth of cities 
and towns in the last sixty years has swept away most of 
these, but a few still remain, and have even served as models 
for houses now building, which are said to be in colonial style. ^ 
The people who lived in them dressed richly and lived in 
comfort. The royal governor and the officers of the crown 
in Boston formed a miniature court about which the richer 
folk gathered. 

3. Life in Other New England Colonies. — What was true of 
Massachusetts was true also, in the main, of the other colonies 

1 A good example of this may be seen in the well-known Craigie House in 
Cambridge, once Washington's headquarters, and afterwards the residence of 
the poet Longfellow. Many new houses iu the neighborhood are in architec- 
tural harmony with it. 



I 



THE THIRTEEN ENGLISH COLONIES. 115 

of New England, New Hanipsliire, Connecticut, and Rhode 
Island. Vermont at this time was a sparsely settled country 
claimed both by New Hampshire and New York, and with a 
good many settlers from Connecticut; Maine, as we have said, 
was a province of Massachusetts. The forests of Maine and 
New Hampshire afforded lumber for export, and the seaports 
were lively centers of shipbuilding and the coasting trade. 

During the French and Indian War great numbers of vessels 
all along the New England coast, and especially in Rhode 
Island, were fitted out as privateers, and carried on the war 
on their own account. In Rhode Island the government 
was less prominent than in Massachusetts; there was more 
individual freedom. In Connecticut the whole terri- 
tory was cut up into little towns, and there was no ' 
one place of great importance, though Yale College had been 
established at New Haven. ^ 

4. Life in New York. — In New York the population lived 
mainly near the great rivers. There was a cluster of towns 
about New York Bay; then settlements followed the course of 
the Hudson to Albany; and along the valley of the Mohawk 
westward, descendants of the Dutch and of the English occu- 
pied the country. The Dutch language was very generally 
used, and the old Dutch customs were still followed. The 
houses were built after the pattern of houses in Holland, and 
usually of brick. "Within they were kept scoured, so that no 
spot of dirt could be seen. The wide chimneys had tiles sur- 
rounding the fireplaces, with pictures on them of Bible scenes. 
Great chests of drawers held piles of linen, woven by the 
mothers and daughters. Behind glass cupboards were shining 
silver and pewter ware and delicate china. There was an air of 
comfort and ease. In the shops at Albany, one would see furs 
and skins brought by the Indians, and silks and satins brought 
by vessels from the East Indies for the rich Dutch families. 

1 There have been many books treating of New England in colonial days. 
Among the most particular in detail are Mrs. Alice Morse Earle's Customs 
and Fashions in Old New England, 



116 ESTABLISHMENT QF THE UNION. 

The Patroons and their Influence The large grants of land 

originally made by the Dutch West India Company had led to 
the establishment of great estates. The patroon lived in a 
great house, with many servants about him. He did not sell 
his land, but let it out in farms. This interfered with the 
growth of independent farms, but the patroons with their 
wealth were able to introduce better cattle, horses, and modes 
of farming. These landowners formed a class like the Eng- 
lish aristocracy, and their homes were the scenes of great hos- 
pitality in the summer time. It was hard for the farmers who 
cleared away the forests and broke up the new soil on these 
great estates not to believe that they made the land their own. 
They rarely saw the patroon, and they began to ask what right 
he had to their rent in the wilderness. Many refused to pay 
rent, and drove off the sheriff who came to demand it. 

The great estates interfered also with the growth of towns. 
Thus, though there were towns in New York, and the govern- 
ment was much the same as in New England, each person did 
not, as there, feel an interest in the whole colony. The peo- 
ple lacked the town meeting in its best form. The town of 
New York was a military post of Great Britain. It was also 
a busy commercial port. The English officers and the rich 
merchants lived in better style than other people. 

Throughout the colony there were more who were very rich 
and more who were very poor than in New England. The col- 
ony also differed from New England in having within its borders 
a large number of Indians of the powerful tribe of the Iroquois. 
These were made peaceable neighbors first through their hatred 
of the French, and then by the strong influence of Sir Wil- 
liam Johnson, who had married into the tribe and had encour- 
aged settlements of them about his own estates at Johnstown.^ 

5. Life in the Middle Colonies. — New Jersey, enclosed by 
New York and Pennsylvania, was protected by both from 
Indian disturbances. It was a farming country, with a sea- 

1 An interesting contemporaneous account of life in New York may be 
found in Mrs. Grant's An American Lady. 



THE THIRTEEN ENGLISH COLONIES. ' 117 

coast which had few harbors. Thus there was little trade. 
Small villages and small farms covered the country more 
closely than in other colonies, and the people were nearly all 
of one class in life. The Friends were still the most impor- 
tant people both in Kew Jersey and in Pennsylvania, though 
they had lost much influence by their refusal to do their part 
in the French and Indian War. They were prosperous and 
charitable, and lived mainly on the rich farms and in the 
thriving towns of the eastern settlements. 

There were many Germans in the middle and eastern parts 
of Pennsylvania. The Germans agreed Avell with the Friends, 
but were frequently engaged in quarrels with the Irish, who 
lived chiefly on the western frontier. These backwoodsmen 
were constantly in difficulty with the Indians. When they 
demanded military help, they were opposed by the Friends, 
and all these quarrels were carried into the Assembly. 

The Largest Town in th^ Country The most thickly settled 

part of America was the country about the shores of Delaware 
Bay and Eiver. Three colonies bordered on this water, — 
New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. The last two 
were under the same governor, but had separate legislatures. 
Philadelphia, the center of this population, was the largest 
town in the country, and numbered about twenty-five thousand 
inhabitants in 1763. It was laid out in regular squares, lined 
with trees. The houses were mainly of brick, sometimes of 
stone, rarely of wood. There were sidewalks to the streets, 
— an unusual thing in those days. There were gardens and 
orchards about many of the houses, and there was an excellent 
market. A trading community occupied the town. There 
were many rich merchants who lived handsomely, and a large 
number of prosperous mechanics. 

Benjamin Franklin One of these mechanics was Benja- 
min Franklin,^ who had come to Philadelphia from Boston 

1 Franklin was born in Boston and was cue of a family of seventeen chil- 
dren. He showed so early a brightness of mind tliat his father sent him to 
school and meant to make a minister of him. He quickly made his way to 



118 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 

when a young man, had set up as a printer, and was now the 
foremost man in Pennsylvania. Franklin was a hard-working, 
clear-headed man, who took the liveliest interest in the affairs 
of the people. He persuaded the Philadelphians to keep their 
city clean, to light it with lamps, to protect it from fire, and to 
give it a good police. Through his influence, largely, the city 
was the most orderly and the most flourishing in the country. 

He was a man of science. He discovered protection against 
lightning by the use of iron rods. He invented the Franklin 
stove, which increased the comfort of houses and economized 
fuel. He printed every year Poor Richard'' s Almanac,^ in 
which he gave good advice to his countrymen about habits 
of prudence. His advice was so sensible, and given in such 
homely language, that everybody read and remembered it. 
He was one of the most active in raising supplies to aid in 
carrying on the war with the French and Indians. 

His townsmen sent him to the Assembly, where he became 
a leader of the people in opposition to the. Penn family; 
for this family, which was still in power, was unwilling to 
bear its share of expenses in protecting the colony against 

the top, but his father was alarmed at the expense of sending him to college 
and so took him into his shop and set him to making candles. Franklin was 
a leader among the boys and was so full of enterprise that his father feared 
he would run away to sea, so he finally made him an apprentice to another of 
his sons who was a printer. James Franklin set up a newspaper and Benja- 
min began to write for it, but without letting his brother know he wrote the 
pieces. The brothers did not get along very well, and when he was seventeen 
Benjamin left James in the lurch, got together some money by selling his 
books, and made his way to Philadelphia. I have given a fuller account of 
Franklin in my Short History, and Hawthorne has a sketch in his Biographical 
Stoyies. But every one should read Franklin's Autobiography, not only for its 
delightful narrative by a great man of his own life, but for the glimpse it 
gives of life in America before the Revolution. 

1 A convenient collection of bits from these almanacs as well as passages 
from other of Franklin's writings may be found in the Riverside Literature 
series. No. 21, and also in The WorlcVs Classics. The proverbs and wise sen- 
tences were introduced by the phrase "As Poor Richard says"; thus, "God 
helps them that help themselves, as Poor Richard says." The signature which 
Franklin used was Richard Saunders. Some of the proverbs were familiar 
sayings, cleverly applied, some were of Franklin's own invention. 



i 




Benjamin Franklin. 
Born January 6, 1706 ; died April 17, 1790. 



120 ESTABLISHMENT QF THE UNION. 

the enemy. Franklin was not alone in his love of science 
and interest in public affairs. There were other men in 
Pennsylvania only less distinguished than he, whose names 
are still remembered,' and there were flourishing societies, 
and the first medical school in the country was established 
in Philadelphia. 

6. Life in the South. — The colonies lying to the south of 
Mason and Dixon's Line differed from those of the North in 
being wholly agricultural and in having their labor done by 
black slaves. The chief products were tobacco in the northern 
parts, rice, indigo, and a little cotton, in the southern. The 
land was held in large estates, so that power was in the hands 
of a comparatively small number of families. 

In Virginia, the water ways were so excellent that vessels 
from England or the Northern colonies could receive and dis- 
charge cargoes at the wharves of the several plantations. 
Thus towns were insignificant, and the merchants were few; 
the planter shipped his tobacco direct and received in return, 
landed at his own door, whatever he needed that his own 
plantation did not produce. 

Baltimore was the only town of' importance in the tobacco 
country. Farther south, in the rice country, was Charleston. 
The planters in South Carolina divided their time between 
their plantations and Charleston. They could not live much 
of the year on their estates, and the care of the black slaves 
was left largely to overseers. Thus slavery in Virginia was 
less harsh than in South Carolina. In the former colony, 
masters and servants formed one great household; in the lat- 
ter, the unhealthy country led to frequent deaths among the 
slaves; their number was filled up with fresh importations 
from Africa, and the masters and mistresses might have 
slaves whom they never saw. 

Early Influence of Slavery. — Since almost all manual labor 
in the Southern colonies was done by slaves, the free men felt 

1 Among these were John Bartram, the botanist ; David Rittenhouse, the 
astronomer ; Benjamin Rush, the physician. 



THE THIRTEEN ENGLISH COLONIES. 121 

it to be beneath them to work with their hands. The better 
class, who owned the slaves, had no need to labor; the poorer 
sort were unwilling to do what slaves did. Thus, between 
the planters and the blacks, there came to be a class of poor 
whites who lived from hand to mouth and learned no habits 
of industry and saving. The planters often sent their sons to 
Europe to be educated, and they had teachers for their younger 
children at home. 

There were, therefore, not many schools, and the poorer 
people grew up in ignorance. The rich had books and pictures, 
and were a courteous, generous class, high-spirited and well- 
educated. In Maryland the proprietary government continued. 
In Virginia, the Carol inas, and Georgia, the governors and other 
officers were appointed by the king, while the members of 
assemblies were chosen by the people. The people who chose 
the members were the landholders and slave owners, and they 
naturally took a great interest in politics.^ 

1 A good many interesting items of life in the colonies will be found in the 
narratives I have brought together in Men and Manners in America a Hundred 
Years Ago. Another book which goes over much general ground in a pictur- 
esque fashion is Charles Carleton Coffin's Old Times in the Colonies. See also 
Kellogg's Good Old Times, dealing especially with western Pennsylvania. 



QUESTIONS. 

"What was the general character of the country occupied by the thirteen 
English colonies ? How many inhabitants were there, and what propor- 
tion were blacks ? Name the thirteen colonies in their order beginning 
with the one farthest north. Describe life in Massachusetts. What 
determined the industries of the colony ? Name the occupations of the 
people. Describe their houses ; the rooms ; the fireplaces ; the fuel ; 
the food ; the clothing ; the best room. How did the people amuse them- 
selves? What were the social distinctions ? What was at the center of 
the town ? What was the local government ? Explain the difference 
between a New England town and a Western township. What was 
Eaneuil Hall ? What was the difference between town life and country 
life ? What constitutes the chief industry of Maine and New Hampshire ? 
What effect did the French war have on New England industry ? 

Where were the settlements in New York ? Why was the Dutch Ian- 



122 ESTABLISHMENT .OF THE UNION. 

guage used there ? Describe the houses ; the fireplaces ; the chests of 
drawers ; the glass cupboards. Of what trade was Albany the center ? 
Describe the farms. Describe the town of New York. What was lack- 
ing among the Dutch to cultivate the spirit of liberty ? What Indians 
were in New York, and what Englishman had great influence among 
them ? Describe New Jersey and Pennsylvania, and the people who 
lived there. Where was the most thickly settled portion of America? 
Describe Philadelphia. Give the story of Benjamin Franklin. What 
was Poor Bichard's Almanac? Describe the planters' manner of living. 
What is said of the governments of the Southern colonies ? of the people 
who composed all the colonies ? 

SEARCH QUESTIONS. 

Who were the Huguenots, and what brought them to this country ? 
Name some instances in recent history when Faneuil Hall has been used 
for great public meetings. What are the principal colleges in New Eng- 
land, and when were they established ? What old scientific association 
has its home in Philadelphia? What part did Franklin have in the 
establishment of public libraries ? Why did slavery die out in the North- 
ern colonies ? When did it disappear by law in Massachusetts ? in New 
York ? What customs inaugurated by the Dutch in New York remain in 
vogue ? How did ten ministers bring about the founding of Yale Col- 
lege? 

SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. 

Compositions : 

A New England town meeting. 

Franklin's boyhood. 

How Franklin once flew a kite and what came of it. 

A Sunday service in a Puritan church. 

Poor Bichard's Almanac and some of its maxims. 

Debates : 

Besolved, That Franklin became of greater importance to the country 
by taking up his residence in Philadelphia. 

Besolved, That the absence of towns in Virginia was of advantage in 
the development of the colony. 



CHAPTER 11. 



ENGLAND AND THE COLONIES. 



Ex'ports. Goods sent out of the 

ports of a country. 
Im'ports. Goods brought into the 

ports of a country. 
Smuggle. To import goods secretly, 

so as to escape the payment of 

duties. 
Ad'vocate General. An officer of 

the government who represents it 

in cases brought before the courts. 
Direct Tax. A tax collected directly 

from a person, as a poll tax, or a 



percentage upon his property. 
An indirect tax is one which is 
collected on the value of goods, 
and thus is usually added to the 
price of the goods by the owner. 
A duty on imports is an indirect 
tax. 
Efl&gy (ef'fi-gy). A figure in imi- 
tation of a person. To hang or 
burn in effigy is to hang or burn 
a stuffed figure intended to repre- 
sent the obnoxious person. 



7. The thirteen colonies were thirteen distinct governments, 
but they had also much in common. They were English 
colonies ; they obeyed English laws ; they called the King of 
England their king; they traded with one another, both by 
land and by water; families moved from one colony to another; 
letters and newspapers were sent back and forth. There was 
no such quick movement as is now possible. The roads were 
rudely made and ill kept. People traveled chiefly by their 
own conveyances. 

In 1756 the first stage ran between New York and Phila- 
delphia, and was three days making the journey. Those who 
traveled by sloop packets were dependent on the winds. They 
might be three days in going from New York to Providence, 
Rhode Island, and they might be three times as long. The 
mails were carried mainly on horseback, and connected the 
line of settlements regularly from Portsmouth, New Hamp- 
shire, to Philadelphia. 

123 



124 ESTABLISHMENT •OF THE UNION, 

South of Philadelphia the rider went only when he had col- 
lected what he thought enough matter. In North Carolina the 
mail passed through the coast towns only about once a month. 
The different colonies had also their separate postal arrange- 
ments within their own borders. 

Early Newspapers. — The people in different parts of the 
country depended for news chiefly on the letters which they 
received. The newspapers did not at first tell much of what 
was going on in the places where they were published. They 
contained advertisements, and news about European affairs 
copied from the London papers. The first newspaper was 
the Boston News Letter, established in 1704. In 1763 there 
were only between thirty and forty newspapers in the entire 
country. The printer, who was often the postmaster, did not 
usually write many articles himself. He printed letters written 
to him by his fellow townsmen, and these letters told what the 
writers thought of the government or of public affairs. Thus, 
when the colonies began to have common interests, the news- 
paper came to be of importance. 

8. Plans for Union — The dangers which threatened the 
colonies had more than once led them to seek some union 
among themselves. This is seen in the confederation of the 
New England colonies in 1643, in the congress held in New 
York after the destruction of Schenectady, in 1690, and in the 
congress held at Albany in 1754. These all arose from diffi- 
culties with the Indians. 

Franklin, who was a delegate from Pennsylvania to this 
last' congress, drew up a plan on his way to Albany for a 
more perfect union of all the colonies under one government. 
When he met the other delegates he found that some of them 
had drawn up similar plans. There was a growing belief that 
some union was necessary. The congress at Albany discussed 
the matter, and agreed upon a plan which was mainly that of 
Franklin. He impressed his view of a Federal union upon 
the people in a characteristic fashion, for his newspaper, the 
Pennsylvania Gazette, for a long time bore a device which 




ENGLAND AND THE COLONIES. 125 

represented a snake cut up into fragments, each fragment 

labeled with initials of the colonies from New England to 

Georgia, and the motto beneath, " Unite 

or Die." ^ This plan was rejected both 

by the English government and by the 

separate colonies. England thought 

it gave too much power to the people ; 

the colonies thought it gave too much 

power to the president, who was to be an officer of the crown. 

Reasons for and against Union. — After all, there was too 
much difference in the size and importance of the different 
colonies to permit them to agree upon any union. The small 
colonies were jealous of the great ones ; there were many quar- 
rels over boundaries; they were not all in equal danger from 
the Indians. It was only when they were all in danger that 
they could forget their differences and unite in a common 
cause. 

They were all a part of the British Empire, and they had 
the independence and love of liberty which belonged to Eng- 
lishmen. Twice since America began to be settled by English 
men and women, the people of England had resisted the gov- 
ernment because it was unjust and was taking away their 
liberty. More than once in the American colonies the people 
had risen when they thought their liberties in danger. 

9. Political Liberty in America. — The people in America 
were separated by a wide ocean from England, and what was 
more important, living as they did in a new country which 
they were subduing to their own use, they were separated from 
the hard-and-fast customs of England. An Englishman, unless 
he had unusual gifts, lived and died in the class to which he 
belonged. In America there was already greater equality, 
and there was a chance for every one to better his condition. 

The farmer or the planter living on his own place could earn 
his livelihood and was not constantly reminded that there was 
somebody over him to whom he must pay taxes. On the 

1 Franklin's Plan of Union is given in No. 9 of Old South Leaflets. 



126 ESTABLISHMENT .OF TEE UNION. 

contrary, he decided, either himself or by his representative, 
what taxes should be laid. It must be borne in mind con; 
stantly that the colonies had from the beginning performed 
the fundamental act of government in taxing themselves. 

The peoi^le, in fact, had so long made their own laws, and 
for the most part chosen their own rulers, that they were inde- 
pendent in fact before they were independent in name. It 
was mainly in the seaport towns that people were reminded 
frequently of England and English laws. 

10. Parties in England. — In England, meanwhile, a change 
had been going on, especially since the advent of George III. 
to the throne. For fifty years or so the control of 
' the government had been practically in the hands 
of a group of persons, known in history as the Old Whigs. 
They made Parliament supreme and reduced the power of the 
crown. 

Now Parliament was supposed to be the choice of the 
people; in reality it was the mouthpiece of a few powerful 
families. There was, however, one notable exception, — 
William Pitt,^ called the Great Commoner, because the people 
at large instinctively felt that he was their champion and 
leader. Pitt was at the head of a rising party known as the 
New Whigs. Their aim was to make Parliament really repre- 
sent the people instead of being a political machine used by the 
Old Whig group. This party, though a small one at first, was, 
in fact, fighting for constitutional liberty in England. 

When George III. came to the throne, a new, or more strictly 
speaking, the revival of an old force in government was seen. 
As the Stuart kings had tried to establish a nearly absolute 
monarchy, so George III. was determined to be the real ruler 
of the country. He drew about him the Tory party, and under- 
took by means of his cabinet to manage the affairs of England 
and her colonies. It is needful to bear this in mind, if one 
would understand the attitude which America bore to Eng- 
land. 

1 See Macaulay's Essay on the Earl of Chatham (William Pitt). 



ENGLAND AND THE COLONIES. 127 

11. The Treatment of America by England The English did 

not know much about America, or understand the people there. 
They knew there was a vast country beyond the sea which 
belonged to England, and that it was growing rich. They 
were like landlords who own distant farms, and care only to 
get as much profit as possible out of them. They regarded 
the colonies chiefly as a market for their goods, and the laws 
made by Parliament were designed to limit the trade of the 
colonies to English markets. 

The furs brought ^in by the hunters, the fish caught by the 
fishermen, the pitch, tar, turpentine, and ship timbers from 
the forest, must all go to England. In the wild woods of 
Maine and New Hampshire no tree of more than twenty-four 
inches' diameter at a foot above the ground could be cut down 
except for a mast for one of the king's ships. 

The laws also laid a duty upon exports and imports. The 
colonists could trade only with England, and they were 
required to pay a tax to the government upon all that they 
bought and all that they sold. If other countries wanted 
their goods, they must buy them of English merchants. The 
colonies could not even sell freely to one another. 

Restriction of Manufactures. — Besides this, England forbade 
the colonies to carry on manufacturing except in a small way. 
They might take iron from the mine, but they must send it 
to England to be manufactured. They paid a tax when they 
sent their iron ore to England. They paid English merchants 
for carrying it, English manufacturers for working it, English 
merchants for bringing it back, and then another tax to the 
English government. 

Thus English merchants and manufacturers grew rich, and 
were very careful to keep the colonies from trading with 
other countries. A host of officers were stationed in the 
American ports to collect the revenue and see that the laws 
were enforced. The colonists were impatient under these 
restraints; but they were prosperous, and paid the taxes out 
of their abundance. 



128 ESTABLISHMENT. OF THE UNION. 

The long extent of seacoast and the scattered population 
made it easy to smuggle goods into the country. In New 
England, especially, a great trade was carried on in this way 
and large fortunes were made, so that the complaints against 
the revenue laws were not so loud as they might otherwise 
have been. 

12. Writs of Assistance. — There was nothing unusual in the 
attitude which England took toward the colonies. They be- 
longed to her according to the theory of the time, and more- 
over she had just been waging a costly war. The French and 
Indian War was a part of the Seven Years' War between 
England and France. When peace came, England was mis- 
tress of America, but she was also heavily in debt. She 
looked around for means to pay the debt, and to lessen the 
burdens which Englishmen were bearing in England. 

The American colonies offered the easiest means. The 
colonies had, it is true, taxed themselves to meet the ex- 
penses of the war in America; but the English government 
declared that the war had been fought mainly to benefit the 
colonies, and that the colonies ought to pay still more. It 
determined to enforce more strictly those laws of trade which 
had hitherto brought in so much revenue; but its intention 
was to use the revenue thus acquired mainly in America it- 
self. The authority of the king's officers in the ports was 
increased, and they were armed with Writs of Assistance. 

These were legal papers long in use in England, which gave 
those who held them power to enter any warehouse or dwell- 
ing, to search for smuggled goods which they might suspect 
to be hidden there. What rendered them especially obnox- 
ious was that they were general in their nature, for they did 
not define the goods hunted for, and they were unlimited in 
time. Armed with one of these writs, an officer could go into 
any house, and he could require the assistance of citizens. He 
was not obliged either to return the paper to the court after 
he had made his search. He could use it again and again. 
There is a saying, "An Englishman's house is his castle"; 



ENGLAND AND THE COLONIES. 129 

that is, he has rights there which the king is bound to respect. 
if these writs were given, the people knew that their houses 
would be entered by the king's officers on the merest suspi- 
cion. They said that the writs were illegal, and they deter- 
mined to prove this in the courts. 

In 1761 the collector of the port of Boston ordered his dep- 
uty in Salem to procure a Writ of Assistance from the court, 
to enable him to search for smuggled goods. Objection was 
raised that it was against the law to give the writ, and the 
judge decided to hear arguments before he issued it. James 
Otis, Jr., was advocate general of the province. It was his 
duty to defend the legality of the Writ of Assistance. He re- 
signed his office rather than take that side, and appeared in 
behalf of the people. It was a famous trial; and Otis in his 
speech used the words, "Taxation without representation is 
tyranny."^ 

13. "Taxation without Representation is Tyranny." — This 
sentence became a watchword in America during the exciting 
times which followed. The people meant by the phrase that 
they were as much Englishmen as those who lived in England. 
They said that for Parliament to tax them without giving them 
a voice in making the laws, either in Parliament or in their 
own assemblies, was to treat them as if they were a subject 
people. 

The force of the watchword is more apparent if we con- 
sider that the American people were far more directly and 
completely represented in their assemblies than the English 
were in Parliament. The right to vote for members of Par- 
liament was confined to certain classes in England, and the 
members elected did not in any special way represent the 
interests of the place where they were elected. In America, 
all but a few men had the right to vote, and the members 
elected to the assemblies spoke for their neighbors. 

What irritated the Americans was the exercise of power 

1 Dr. Samuel Johnson, the famous English author, was a staunch Tory, and 
wrote a pamphlet called Taxation no Tyranny. 

K 



130 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 



over them by what they regarded almost as a foreign body, 
the English Parliament, and what they resented most was the 
exercise of that power in taxing them. They were ready to 
tax themselves in support of the crown; they would not sub- 
mit to have that tax imposed on them by Parliament. 

14. Resistance to the Stamp Act. — The first direct issue of 
importance between the colonies and England came when 
Parliament undertook to lay a tax to be collected by officers 

appointed for the purpose. This 
was the Stamp Act, by which it 
was required that a stamp should 
be affixed to any deed, contract, 
bill of sale, will, and the like, 
made in America before it could 
be legal. These stamps were to 
be made in England, and sent 
over to America to be sold by the 
government officers. It was in- 
tended that the money thus raised 
should be used for the support of 
the king's troops in America. 

The Stamp Act was passed by 
Parliament in March, 1765, and 
as soon as this was known in 
America, the colonies, from one 
end of the land to the other, were 
full of indignation. Parliament, they said, might make laws 
to regulate the commerce of the empire, and so draw revenue 
from America; but it had no right to lay a direct tax like 
this. Only the colonial governments, elected by the people, 
could lay such a tax. 

Virginia's Action. — In the Virginia legislature a famous 
orator, Patrick Henry, introduced resolutions, which declared 
that the people, and the people only, had the right to tax the 
people. They had this right, not as colonists, but as Eng- 
lishmen. They had their own assemblies, where they could 




Stamp, 



ENGLAND AND THE COLONIES. 



131 




Patrick Henry.^ 

1 Patrick Henry did not come of one of the rich and inflnential families of 
Virginia, but both his father, who was of Scotch birth, and his mother, who 
was Welsh by extraction, were persons of character and ability. Patrick 
Henry was born May 29, 1736, and until he was twenty-four gave no evidence 
of special intellectual force. Then he became a lawyer, and it was not long 
before he became noted in his neighborhood for his oratory. He made a great 
reputation in the Continental Congress, and was the first governor of the State 
of Virginia. He was one of the party that stood out against the adoption of 
the constitution. He died June 6, 1799. A convenient life of Patrick Henry 
is that by Moses Coit Tyler. A fuller one in two volumes has been written by 
William Wirt Henry. 



132 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 

vote the taxes. Many of the members objected to the resolu- 
tions, fearing that they were too emphatic. Patrick Henry 
replied with a powerful speech. In the midst of it he ex- 
claimed : " Csesar had his Brutus, Charles the First his Crom- 
well, and George the Third " — " Treason ! treason ! " cried 
some of the excited members. Henry waited a moment, then 
added solemnly — " may profit by their example. If that be 
treason, make the most of it." 

15. The Stamp Act Congress. — The Massachusetts legislature 
proposed a general convention of all the colonists, which met 
at New York in October, 1765. Nine colonies took part in it, 
and sent their most distinguished men. For the first time 
the whole country had a common cause, and there was need 
that the people should consult together. Congress, as the 
convention was called, drew up a declaration of rights. 

The people of the colonies, it said, had the same rights as 
the people of England. It was the right of Englishmen to be 
taxed only by their own consent. This consent was given 
through representatives. Englishmen had their Parliament; 
the people in the different colonies had their assemblies. The 
assemblies had the sole power to lay taxes in America. 
Congress demanded the repeal of the Stamp Act; and the 
people everywhere showed their determination to support this 
demand. 

16. The Attitude of the Colonists They declared that until 

the stamp act was repealed, they would not import English 
goods. They held fairs to encourage home manufactures. 
They would not eat mutton, so that they might have more 
wool to spin. They would not wear mourning, because all 
mourning goods came from England. When the stamps were 
received in America it was impossible to compel the people to 
use them. The officers who were to supply them were some- 
times made to resign, sometimes hanged or burned in effigy; ^ 

1 In the face of a building at the corner of Washington and Essex streets 
in Boston is a carving which typifies the Liberty Tree wliich, in 176G, stood 
in a green at that spot. It was an ancient tree with spreading branches, and 



ENGLAND AND THE COLONIES. 133 

copies of the Stamp Act were publicly burned, bells were 
tolled, flags hung at half mast; and in some towns mobs 
destroyed the houses of the revenue officers.^ 

17. The Stamp Act in England. — The effect was felt in Eng- 
land, where a small -pavtj in Parliament upheld the colonists. 
In the House of Commons William Pitt uttered the memo- 
rable words: "The gentlemen tell us that America is obsti- 
nate, America is almost in open rebellion. Sir, I rejoice that 
America has resisted! Three millions of people, so dead to 
all the feelings of liberty as voluntarily to submit to be 
slaves, would have been fit instruments to make slaves of all 
the rest." 

At that time it was the custom of the different colonies to 
employ agents, who lived in London and looked out for the 
interests of the colonies which sent them. Benjamin Frank- 
lin was one of these agents, and his words had great weight 
with the wise Englishmen. 

The British ministry, before the act was passed, had asked 
Eranklin how the people in America would regard it. He 
told them that the people would never submit to it. Now 
the ministry sent for Eranklin again, and asked if he thought 
the people would pay for the damage done in the destruction 
of the stamped paper if Parliament would repeal the Stamp 
Act. Franklin replied with a characteristic story. 

A Frenchman, he said, rushed into the street once with a 
red-hot poker in his hand, and met an Englishman. " Will you 
let me run this poker a foot into you?" screamed the French- 
man. "What!" said the Englishman. "Well, six inches, 
then? " " Never ! " " Then will you pay me for the trouble and 
expense of heating the poker?" The Englishman walked off. 

under it open-air meetings were held. From a branch of the tree hung an 
effigy of Andrew Oliver, the stamp officer ; and a number of the Sons of Lib- 
erty, as a half-secret organization was called, took the effigy down at night 
and burned it in a bonfire before Oliver's house. 

1 Before the Stamp Act Congress, the term Americans had been applied 
generally to the natives of North America. It was now that on botli sides of 
the Atlantic it began to be used of the inhabitants of the English colonies. 



134 ESTABLISHMENT pF TBE UNION. 

The Stamp Act was repealed, for the English government 
saw that it was impossible to enforce it. At the same time 
Parliament took care to say that it had the right to 
1766 ' *^^ *^^^ colonies. In America people were overjoyed 
at the repeal of the act, and did not trouble them- 
selves much about the claims which Parliament might set up 
in words. 

QUESTIONS. 

What were the relations of the colonies to each other and to England ? 
What is said of the roads ? the modes of travel ? the mails ? the news- 
papers ? What attempts at union had been made ? Why did Franklin's 
plan of union fail ? What stood in the way of a union ? What was the 
difference between political life in America and in England ? What had 
been the practice regarding taxation in America ? Describe the political 
parties in England at this time. Who was the Great Commoner ? What 
part had he already played in American affairs ? [See Introduction, 
Chapter VI.] How did England look upon America ? What laws were 
made restricting trade ? What regulations in regard to manufactures 
were made ? What acts had England formerly passed making the colo- 
nies dependent on England? [See Introduction, Section 49.] Why 
were English revenue officers in American ports ? Why was it not con- 
sidered disreputable to smuggle ? How had the colonists paid a share of 
the expenses of the French and Indian War ? How did England pro- 
pose further to relieve herself ? What were Writs of Assistance ? Why 
were they obnoxious ? What was done by James Otis ? What is meant 
by the words "Taxation without representation is tyranny"? What 
was the difference between popular government in America and England ? 
What were the stamps, and what use was made of them ? What was the 
American ground of resistance to the Stamp Act? Tell what Patrick 
Henry did and said. Why did a Congress assemble in 1765, and what 
did it do ? What did the people do, and how did they treat the officers 
who sold the stamps ? What did William Pitt say ? What story did 
Franklin tell, and how did it apply to the case ? What was finally done, 
and why ? 

SEARCH QUESTIONS. 

Why are taxes needed in government ? How are they laid in America 
to-day, and who collects them ? What is the real difference between a 
postage stamp and a revenue stamp? How were the stamps in 1765 
affixed to papers? What revenue stamps are now used in the United 



ENGLAND AND THE COLONIES, 135 

States ? When were they imposed by the government to a large extent 
and cheerfully accepted by the people ? Tell, the story of Brutus and 
Csesar ; of Cromwell and Charles I. What word is in common use to- 
day to express a systematic refusal to trade with a particular person? 
In what country did it originate ? How were the stamps fixed to papers ? 
What were the leading articles of manufacture in the colonies at this 
time ? Did the colonists really desire to be represented in Parliament ? 
What then was the meaning of "no taxation without representation" ? 
In what way was this phrase a watchword of William Pitt as well as of 
Patrick Henry and James Otis ? 

SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. 

Compositions : 

Narrative of a journey from Boston to Philadelphia in 1763. 

A sketch of the life of William Pitt. 

How the colonists in some cities set about defeating the Stamp Act ? 

A sketch of the life of James Otis. 

Debates : 

Besolved, That England was justified in drawing revenue from Amer- 
ica for the payment of government expenses in America. 

Besolved, That the colonists were justified in smuggling, under the 
navigation laws. 

Besolved, That England was acting under her constitutional rights in 
passing the Stamp Act. 



CHAPTER III. 



THE FIRST RESISTANCE. 



Quartered. Given quarters or 
houseroom among the people. 

East India Company. A corporation 
in England, formed for trading 
with the East Indies. It laid the 
foundation of English rule in India. 

Common. A piece of ground in a 



town, left uninclosed, for the 

common use of all the people in 

the town. 
Outskirts. The border of a town. 
^Par'apet. A fortification, breast 

high. 
Ticondero'ga. 



18. The Quartering of Troops — The object of the Stamp Act 
had been to raise money for the support of the king's troops 
in America. That object still remained, and Parliament now 
passed an act by which the colonies were to quarter the troops 
sent among them. It also imposed certain duties on 
colonial trade and declared that the^ revenue from 
these duties should be used to pay the salaries of officers of 
the crown in America. It reaffirmed the legality of Writs of 
Assistance. The attitude of Parliament was clearly one of 
tighter control of the colonies. 

To make this more evident, a colonial department was made 
a distinct branch of the government. Pitt had grown feeble 
and had withdrawn practically from power. He had been 
created Earl of Chatham. The ministry, headed now by the 
brilliant Townshend and a little later by the dull and obsti- 
nate Lord North, was a Tory ministry. The old Whigs were 
out of office, and the party of new Whigs, though vigorous, 
was small. There was no quarrel between the king's ministry 
and Parliament, but the colonies for some time maint^ned the 
position that they were loyal subjects of the king and resisted 
only the illegal acts of Parliament. 

136 



THE FIRST RESISTANCE. 137 

The Boston Massacre. — The principal places affected by these 
acts were New York and Boston. The Assembly of New York 
refused to make provision for the troops, and Parliament or- 
dered the Assembly to close. Massachusetts sent a circular 
letter to the other colonies, proposing a petition to the king. 
This petition protested against acts of Parliament which taxed 
them without their consent. The answer of the king's minis- 
ters was to send four regiments of soldiers to Boston. The 
people there, both in town meeting and in the legislature, 
demanded that the troops should be withdrawn. 

They were a constant cause of irritation ; and the petty 
quarrels between the soldiers and townspeople broke out finally 
into a fight in which sonle of the townspeople were 
killed. This fight, which goes by the name of the -faTO 
Boston Massacre, produced an intense feeling of 
anger. For several years the 5th of March was a day for a 
great town meeting, and an oration by some Boston patriot. 
By such meetings and addresses the people kept alive the mem- 
ory of a wrong, and encouraged one another to resist tyranny. 

Samuel Adams/ a popular leader who had great influence, 
especially among the workingmen of Boston, headed the citi- 
zens, the day after the Boston massacre, in a demand for the 
removal of the troops. The governor, Thomas Hutchinson,^- 

1 Samuel Adams was born in Boston, September 16, 1722. His grandfather 
and the grandfather of John Adams were brothers. Samuel Adams was grad- 
uated at Harvard College, and the subject of his commencement piece was 
significant, " Whether it be lawful to resist the supreme magistrate, if the 
Commonwealth cannot otherwise be preserved." He was distinctly the mouth- 
piece of tlie citizens of Boston in their dispute with the authorities. He was 
a member of the Continental Congress, and afterward Governor of Massachu- 
setts. He died October 2, 1803. His statue stands in Dock Square, Boston, 
and an excellent liffe has been written by James K. Hosmer. 

2 Thomas Hutchinson and Samuel Adams were on opposite sides in politics, 
and as Adams represented the new party springing up which was satisfied 
finally with nothing short of independence, Hutchinson was the ablest of those 
who held by the Crown, and finally was compelled to leave the country. He 
was an honest, unselfish man, and no one can rightly understand the position 
of those who tried in America to keep the British empire intact, without 
becoming acquainted with Hutchinson. Mr. Hosmer has written his life also. 



138 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 



seeing the entire community aroused, was wise enough to order 
the troops to be removed to the fort in the harbor, called the. 
Castle. But the people were fast coming to look on the English 
government as hostile, and Adams, who was one of the first to 
see that entire independence was logically the end, proposed a 
committee in Boston town meeting to correspond with other 
towns on the affairs of the people. This practice was taken up 

by the towns, and later 
by the colony with other 
colonies, and commit- 
tees of correspondence 
became an important 
agency in organizing the 
people. 

19. The Tax on Tea. 
— England now com- 
mitted a blunder which 
brought affairs to a cri- 
sis. The colonies, by 
their firmness, had com- 
pelled Parliament to 
remove one tax after an- 
other ; that on tea alone 
remained. The people 
accordingly refused to 
buy tea, although for- 
merly they had bought 
large quantities. The East India Company found itself with 
seventeen million pounds of tea in its English warehouses, 
which it could not sell. The failure of the company would 
greatly impoverish the king, who owned shares in it. It be- 
came necessary to do something to relieve the company. 

Accordingly Lord North, the king's chief adviser, persuaded 
Parliament to pass an act taking off the tax of sixpence a 
pound which the tea paid in England. It was supposed this 
would so reduce the price of tea that the Americans would 




Samuel Adams. 



THE FIRST RESISTANCE. 



139 



not mind the tax of threepence per pound which was still 
to be paid in America, and would buy largely. The company 
was shrewder than Lord North, _ and asked to be allowed 
to pay the English tax, but to 
duty, in America. "No," said 
be one tax, to keep up the right." 

As soon as the colonies 
learned of the act of P; 
ment, there was great 
dignation. It was m 
cheap tea that they 
wanted, but untaxed 
tea. They saw the 
English govern- 
ment taking off 
the tax in Eng- 
land, but keeping 
it on in America. 
They knew that 
this was intended 
by the king as a 
declaration of his 
right to tax the 
colonies. When 
the vessels bring- 
ing the tea 
reached America, 
the citizens in 
many of the ports compelled the captains to sail back with 
their cargoes to England. 

The Boston Tea Party. — In Boston the royalist governor at- 
tempted to secure the landing of the tea. The citizens, under 
the lead of Sam Adams, as he was popularly called, 
would not permit it. For twenty days the committee 
of the people strove to compel the governor to send back the 
vessels. Faneuil Hall, where the town meetings were held, was 




Old South Chnrcli. 



140 ESTABLISHMENT ^OF THE UNION, 

crowded day after day with people who met to consult. At last, 
in the twilight of a December day, when the people were gath- 
ered in the Old South Church, because Faneuil Hall was not 
large enough, a messenger came from the governor with his final 
refusal. 

Sam Adams stood up and declared, " This meeting can do 

nothing more to save the country." A voice in the gallery 

called out, " Hurrah for Griffin's Wharf ! " It was at 

1773 ' Grriffin's Wharf ^ that the tea ships lay. Immediately 
the people poured out of the church and hurried after 
a party of young men disguised as Indians, who set up a war 
whoop. These men took possession of the vessels, seized the 
tea chests, broke them open, and poured the contents into the 
harbor. 

20. The Boston Port Bill. — As soon as the news reached 
England, Lord North brought into Parliament a bill, which 
was passed, ordering that after the first of June no person 
should load or unload any ship in the port of Boston until the 
town apologized, and paid for the tea which had been destroyed. 
The Boston Port Bill, as it was called, was the punishment 
which the British government inflicted on the rebellious town. 

To close the port of Boston was to strike a severe blow at the 

prosperity of the town and of the entire colony. When the act 

went into operation, the bells were tolled and the peo- 

1774' pl6 hung out mourning. Throughout the country there 

was the greatest sympathy shown for Massachusetts. 

The other colonies urged the Bostonians to remain steadfast, 

and showed their sympathy by gifts of money and provisions. 

21. The Loss of Governmental Rights. — When the port of 
Boston was closed, a British fleet lay at the entrance, and regi- 
ments of British soldiers occupied the town. A still severer 
blow was struck at the liberties of the people. Parliament 
had passed two acts for the regulation of the government of 
the Province of Massachusetts Bay. 

1 A tablet is inserted in the wall of a building on Atlantic Avenue where the 
wharf formerly stood. 



THE FIRST RESISTANCE. 141 

By these acts nearly all the power was lodged in the hands 
of the governor and of officers appointed by the king or gov- 
ernor. The people could hold town meetings only once a year. 
The courts had power to send prisoners to England or to other 
colonies for trial, instead of being required to try them before 
juries of their neighbors. 

The people now knew that they had something more to 
struggle for than freedom from taxation. They were to con- 
tend for rights dear to every free Englishman, and they pro- 
ceeded at once to take measures to assert those rights. Since 
Parliament chose to take from them their customary govern- 
ment, they would make a new government. 

The people in Massachusetts, as in the other colonies, had 
been used to acting according to law. So now, when they 
rebelled against the government, they went about the business 
not as if they were breaking laws, but as if they were keeping 
them. They were forbidden to have more than one town 
meeting a year. In Boston, accordingly, they had only one, 
but by adjourning from time to time they made it last all the 
year. 

22. The Provincial and the Continental Congress. — General 
Gage, the new governor, who had been sent over from England, . 
refused to recognize the legislature chosen by the people. There- 
upon the legislature formed itself into the Provincial Congress 
of Massachusetts, and withdrew from Boston to Concord. This 
Congress was regarded by the people of the colony as the real 
government. It appointed a Committee of Safety, which met 
frequently and had power to act in any emergency. 

The colonies all had committees of correspondence, and kept 
one another informed by letter of what was going on. Massa- 
chusetts now invited the other colonies to send delegates to a 
congress at Philadelphia. This is known as the First Continen- 
tal Congress. The name is significant of national 
feeling. All the colonies were represented except ®?„^^®^' 
Georgia. They drew up an address to the king, 
setting forth their grievances, and formed an agreement to 



142 



ESTABLISHMENT QF THE UNION. 



October, 

1774. 



refuse to carry on any trade with Great Britain until their 
wrongs should be righted. 

23. Lexington and Concord. — The towns of Massachusetts 
had always had their militia companies. Now these were 
newly organized, under patriot captains, and an active training 

and drill began. General 
Gage, on the other hand, 
began to move his sol- 
diers back and forth, to 
fortify Boston, and to 
secure the cannon and 
powder which might be 
in the province. The 
Provincial Con- 
gress had col- 
lected military 
stores in Concord. Gen- 
eral Gage, who had made 
unsuccessful attempts in 
other directions, planned 
a secret night excursion to Concord to destroy 
the stores. But he was in the midst of a 
hostile and vigilant people, and his plans were discovered in 
season to warn the Committee of Safety. 

Among the means taken by the patriots to warn the country, 
was a lantern signal hung from a church tower in Boston.^ 
Messengers rode by night through the country, carrying the 
news that British soldiers were marching to Concord, and peo- 
ple took down their muskets and hurried to join their neighbors. 
Thus when the British troops, early in the morning of the 
19th of April, reached Lexington, two thirds of the 
1775 ' ^^^-^ *° Concord, they found a small body of country- 
men, under Captain Parker, drawn up on the com- 
mon to dispute tl*e way. Captain Parker had given orders 

iThis incident has been graphically set forth in Longfellow's ''Paul 
Revere's Ride." 




Carpenters' Hall, 

where the First Coii' 
gress met. 



THE FIRST RESISTANCE. 



143 



not to fire unless they were fired upon. The British troops 
called upon the rebels to disperse, and opened fire on them, 
killing seven men. 

The little band of patriots retreated slowly, returning the 
fire as they went ; the British kept on to Concord, where they 
began to destroy the military stores. A detachment was sent 




across the river to destroy 
other stores farther off, 
when they heard the sound 
of firing near Concord 
Bridge, and quickly turned back. The Americans had attacked 
the troops left to guard the bridge. 

The whole countryside had been roused. The news of the 
attack at Lexington had spread like wildfire. Companies of 
minute men, so called because they were to be ready for move- 
ment at a minute's notice, were pouring into Concord and 
joined in the attack of the British, who were overpowered by 
the number of countrymen. 



144 ESTABLISHMENT , OF THE UNION. 

The British forces began a retreat toward Boston, bearing 
their dead and wounded with them. All the way, from be- 
hind stone walls, and from houses, the angry farmers harassed 
them with shot. They did not desist until the troops had 
crossed Charlestown Neck at sunset, and were safe under the 
guns of the British vessels. 

The news of the fight traveled swiftly. The colonial militia 
had attacked the king's troops. There were no railways or 
telegraphs in those days, but every man sent word to his 
neighbor, and one town rallied the next. The farmers left 
their plows, and the artisans their tools. They took their guns 
and horses, and marched straight to Boston. The women were 
full of patriotism. A mother had two boys, one nineteen, the 
other sixteen, years of age. Her husband was at sea. She 
gave her eldest boy his fowling piece ; and since the duck and 
goose shot were too small, she cut up her pewter spoons and 
hammered the pieces into slugs. She had only a rusty sword 
for the younger boy, but she sent them both off to join the men. 

The Patriots' Rally. — All through the 19th of April and the 
night that followed, the tramp of men and horses was heard 
on the roads. They came from every quarter; and on the 
morning of the 20th a great company had gathered at Cam- 
bridge, upon the outskirts of Charlestown, and at Roxbury. 
Boston was surrounded by camps of patriots. Every day their 
numbers were swelled by newcomers. Each company of soldiers 
chose its own officers, and was under the general orders of the 
colony to which it belonged. The oldest-commissioned and 
most experienced officer was Artemas Ward, who commanded 
the Massachusetts troops at Cambridge. 

Upon a monument which stands near the scene of the little 
battle of Concord, are four lines from a poem written by the 
American poet, Ralph Waldo Emerson : 

♦' By the rude bridge that arched the flood, 
Their flag to the April's breeze unfurled, 
Here once the embattled farmers stood, 
And fired the shot heard round the world.'* 



THE FIRST RESISTANCE. 



145 



24. The Second Continental Congress While these things 

were going on, the Continental Congress was again in session in 
.Philadelphia. The delegates to the Congress were by no means 




John Adams. 

ready to separate the colonies from England. They were bent 
only on maintaining the resistance which had been made until 
England should right their wrongs, and they clung as long as 
they could to the theory that Parliament was undertaking to 
govern them contrary to the laws of the empire, but that an 



146 ESTABLISHMENT^ OF THE UNION. 

appeal to the king and to their friends in England would 
bring about a change of policy. They were fortified in this 
belief by the energetic support which they received from a 
small party in Parliament. 

The resistance to the king's troops had been most open in 
a single locality, but there was a determined spirit of resist- 
ance everywhere. It was clear that the colonies must act 
together if they would accomplish anything. So when the 
Provincial Congress of Massachusetts, after Lexington and 
Concord, asked the Continental Congress to take charge of the 
army which was gathered about Boston from other colonies 
than Massachusetts, the Continental Congress did assume the 
general control, and the colonies took together the important 
etep of raising troops and money to resist England. 

John Adams ^ was a delegate from Massachusetts, and on 
his nomination George Washington^ of Virginia, was 

"^® ' unanimously elected general and commander-in-chief 
of the Army of the United Colonies.^ He imme- 
diately set out for Cambridge, and on his way heard an impor- 
tant piece of news. 

1 John Adams was born at Braintree, Massachusetts, October 19, 1735. At 
the outbreak of the war for independence he was a lawyer. He was a man 
of sturdy nature who was willing to do unpopular things if he thought they 
were right; he defended the soldiers engaged in the Boston Massacre, for 
instance. He will be met later in our history, for he was a conspicuous states- 
man and became the second president of the Union. Some of the most ani- 
mated accounts of the historic days in which he lived are to be found in the 
Familiar Letters of John and Abigail Adams, Abigail Adams being his M'ife, 
who stayed at home much of the time that John Adams was in the Conti- 
nental Congress. His life in the America7i Statesmen series is by John T. 
Morse, Jr. 

2 There are many easily accessible lives of Washington. I have written 
one, George Washington, an Historical Biography. There is one in two vol- 
umes in American Statesmen series, by Henry Cabot Lodge, and an illustrated 
one by Woodrow Wilson. Washington Irving's Life of Washington is one of 
the fullest. 

3 As the Congress was called continental, so the army was called the conti- 
nental army and the paper money issued by Congress, continental currency. 
The word is significant as indicating that the people had caught at the idea of 
a comprehension of all the colonies in one great nation. 



THE FIRST RESISTANCE, 147 

25. Battle of Bunker Hill.— On the evening of the 16th of 
June the Committee of Safety had sent troops to Charlestown. 
for they had heard that the British meant to occupy that place. 
There in the night they had thrown up fortifications upon a 
hill commanding Boston. The part of the hill nearest Boston 
was called Breed's Hill ; behind it rose Bunker Hill. The 
British had been unwilling to make an attack upon the camps 
about Boston, for that meant open war ; but such a movement 
as this could not be overlooked. 

As soon (on the morning of the 17th) as they discovered 
the Americans intrenched, they sent troops across the river 
from Boston to dislodge them. They were very confident of 
quickly routing these raw troops with their regular soldiers. 
The Americans, behind a hastily built redoubt and a rail fence 
padded with new-mown hay, awaited the coming of the British 
as they marched up the hill. They had orders not to fire till 
they could see the whites of their enemies' eyes. Not a soldier 
stirred till the British were within fifty yards. Then, as the 
order was given, the Americans poured a deadly volley into the 
ranks. The redcoats, used to war, stood their ground for a 
moment, and then, seized with panic, rushed down the hill. 
Three times the British regulars were ordered up the hill. 
Twice they were driven back by the countrymen, who from 
behind their slight fortifications coolly fired upon the redcoats. 
Then the Americans' ammunition gave out ; and when the third 
attack came, they fired stones from their guns and slowly re- 
treated, leaving the British in possession.^ 

The battle of Bunker Hill had been fought. The Ameri- 
cans, led by Prescott^ and Putnam,^ had lost their brave gen- 

1 Read Dr. Holmes's dramatic poem " Grandmother's Story of the Battle of 
Bunker Hill." 

- Colonel Prescott was grandfather of the historian. 

3 Israel Putnam, who had fought in the French and Indian War, was a 
farmer in Pomfret, Connecticut. When the news of Lexington reached him 
he was plowing a "field. He took the horse out of the plow, jumped on his 
back, and leaving orders for the militia company to follow hira, was off at 
once for the scene of action. 



148 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 



eral, Warren, and about four hundred and fifty men had been 

killed, wounded, or captured. The British loss was 

yjrjQ ' more than twice as great. It was a bold movement 

of the Americans, and the colonial militia had stood 

the fire of the British regulars. 




The Wa^ihiugton Elm aud Headquarters 



26. Washington takes Command. — When Washington heard 
this, he was greatly encouraged. On the 3d day of 

1775 ' *^^^^y ^^ took command of the American army, beneath 

an elm tree still standing by Cambridge Common. 

He found a crowd of brave, undisciplined ^ soldiers, ill provided 

1 How undisciplined they were may be seen by an incident which a visitor 
to the camp reports. He overheard this dialogue between a captain and one 
of the privates under him : 

" Bill," said the captain, " go and bring a pail of water for the men." 
"I shan't," said Bill. "It's your turn now, captain; I got it last time." 
But Washington soon saw that there was stuff in the sturdy men. He wrote to 
Congress : " I have a sincere pleasure in observing that there are materials for 



THE FIRST RESISTANCE. 



149 



Oct. 17, 
1775. 



with arms, ammunition, and provisions. His first business was 
to organize them into an army, while he kept watch of the 
British in Boston. 

The British army did not come out from the town ; but some 
of the vessels which blockaded the harbor were sent down the 
coast and burned the town of Falmouth, 
now Portland, Maine. This 
was a direct act of war. It 
did much to weaken the lin- 
gering hope of some Americans that 
the trouble was confined to Boston, 
and that there would be no general 
war. 

27. Movements in Other Directions. — 
Meantime the Americans had not been 
idle elsewhere. Ethan Allen, at the 
head of a party of mountaineers, sur- 
prised the British garrison at 
Fort Ticonderoga, and cap- ™g ' 



tured that fort as well as 
Crown Point. These were on the old 
route to Canada; and men who had 
fought in the French and Indian War 
were eager to get possession of that 
country. 

General Montgomery moved down 
Lake Champlain and captured Mon- 
treal. Benedict Arnold se- 
cured Washington's approval, 
and with some of the forces 
which were besieging Boston, made a 
terrible march through the wilderness 
of Maine to the St. Lawrence. He followed the plan Wolfe 



Nov. 13, 
1775. 




Arnold's Route. 



a good army, a great number of able-bodied men, active, zealous in the cause, 
and of unquestionable courage." Washington's account of the army as he found 
it at Cambridge is reprinted from his letters in Old South Leaflets, No. 47. 



150 ESTABLISHMENT , OF THE UNION. 

had adopted, and occupied the Plains of Abraham. Arnold 
reached Quebec just as Montgomery entered Montreal. 

It was intended that the two armies should unite ; but 
Arnold could not hold his position, and retreated to a less 
exposed place. After Montgomery arrived from Montreal, an 
attack was made upon Quebec ; but it was disastrous. Mont- 
gomery was killed, the British army was reenforced, and the 

Americans were obliged 
to abandon Canada. 

28. England's Reply to 
America. — If any still 
hoped that England 
would yield, they were 
convinced that the hope 
was vain when they 
heard how the address 
of Congress to the king 
had been received. The 
king returned no an- 
swer, but notified Par- 
liament that the colonies 
were in a state of re- 
bellion. He announced 
that he should at once 
increase his forces in 

, -o , -r. ,,,««-,.-,,,,«„ America and crush the 

Edmund Burke. Born 1729) died 1797. . ... 

rebellion. 

And yet the cause of the Americans was upheld by some 
of the greatest Englishmen of the day, who perceived clearly 
that the cause was one of free government, and that England 
was deeply concerned. Edmund Burke, one of the most far- 
sighted statesmen of the time, spoke earnestly in Parliament 
against the policy the king was pursuing.^ The Earl of Chat- 
ham, also, in the House of Lords, though failing in strength 

1 See especially his great speech on Conciliation with the Colonies, delivered 
March 22, 1775. 




,v 



THE FIRST RESISTANCE. 151 

of body was unceasing in liis opposition to the repressive 
policy.^ 

29. A Union Flag and the Siege of Boston raised On the 

first of January 1776, AVashington caused a flag to be adopted 
by his army, with thirteen red and white stripes and the Brit- 
ish union jack in the corner. Early in March, Washington 
was ready to drive the British out of Boston. He now liad 
cannon, wliich had been dragged over the snow from Ticonder- 
oga, and he proceeded to occupy Dorchester Heights, over- 
looking the harbor. General Howe, who had succeeded Gen- 
eral Gage, saw that he must fight at a great disadvantage or 
abandon the town. He gathered his forces, took to the fleet, 
and sailed away. With him went those families which had 
remained loyal to the king. The siege of Boston was raised. 
There was now open war between the two countries ; but after 
this Massachusetts scarcely knew the presence of soldiers. It 
became the policy of England to strike at the heart of the 
colonies.^ 

1 Franklin wrote to a friend in England in October, 1775: " Britain, at the 
exijense of three millions, has killed a hundred and fifty Yankees this cam- 
paign, which is £20,000 a head ; and at Bunker Hill she gained a mile of ground, 
all of which she lost again by our taking post on Ploughed Hill. During the 
same time 60,000 children have been born in America." From these data he 
would have a friend calculate " the time and expense necessary to kill us all 
and conquer the whole of our territory." 

^ One of Cooper's novels, Lionel Lincoln, has to do with this period. 

QUESTIONS. 

The Stamp Act having been repealed, what action did Parliament take 
to raise revenue in America ? What was its general attitude toward the 
colonies? Who controlled the action of Parliament ? What was the 
effect of sending regiments to Boston ? Name the two Massachusetts 
men of prominence who played opposite parts at this time. What were 
committees of correspondence ? Narrate the steps that led to the tax on 
tea. How was the act of Parliament received in America? What took 
place in Boston ? What punishment did government inflict on Boston 
for its action ? What further policy did Parliament pursue in support of 
its authority ? How did the people of Massachusetts meet the situation ? 



152 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION, 

What gave rise to the first Continental Congress ? Narrate the events 
which occurred at Lexington and Concord. Describe the incidents of the 
retreat of the British. What effect did the affair have on the country 
people ? Where was the chief camp of the patriots formed ? Repeat the 
lines on the Concord monument. What was going on at this time in 
Philadelphia? What was the effect upon Congress of the fighting in 
Massachusetts ? How did Washington come to be conspicuous in Con- 
gress? Narrate the events of the battle of Bunker Hill. When did 
Washington get news of the battle, and on what day did he take com- 
mand of the army? How did tlie British forces further estrange the 
people ? What forts did Ethan Allen and his men capture ? Narrate the 
attempt of Montgomery and Arnold to capture Canada. What was 
England's reply to the address of Congress ? What was the end of the 
siege of Boston ? 

SEARCH QUESTIONS. 

What were the Mecklenburg resolutions ? How did the personal 
characteristics of George III. enter into the great question of governing 
America ? Sam Adams is said to have originated the caucus ; what 
was the origin of the word ? State the plan of conciliation which Burke 
proposed. Was the British attack on Bunker Hill well planned from a 
military point of view ? What is the story of the Boston boys having 
their coast spoiled by British soldiers? What were the non-importation 
agreements made by the colonists after the repeal of the Stamp Act ? 



SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. 

Compositions : 

An account of the meeting at the Old South, December 16, 1773. 

A prose version of the warning of Lexington by Paul Revere. 

Life in Boston during the siege. 

Imaginary letter from a British soldier in the battle of Bunker Hill. 

Imaginary letter of a minute man in the battle of Bunker Hill. 

An account of the retreat of the British from Concord to Charlestown. 

A sketch of the life of Israel Putnam. 

Debates : 

Resolved, That Parliament had the same right to control the colonies 
that the United States Congress has to govern the territories. 

Besolved, That the tax of threepence per pound on tea should have 
been paid by the Americans. 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 



Moultrie (moo'tri). 
Kosciusko (kos-si-us'ko) . 
Kalb. Sometimes De Kalh. 
Steuben (stu'ben). 
Pulas'ki. 



Marquis de la Fayette (mar-kee' 
de-la- fa-yet'). But the English 
form (mar'quis) is commonly 
used, and the French name writ- 
ten as one word, Lafayette. 



30. Movements of the British. — When General Howe left 
Boston he carried his army to Halifax ; but it was well under- 
stood that his plan was to take possession of New York. The 
patriots there had been busy, ever since the fight at Concord, 
raising an army, and throwing up fortifications. Washington 
hurried forward his troops, and prepared to defend the town, 
and the mouth of the Hudson. 

Meanwhile the British had sent an expedition to secure 
the Southern colonies. The fleet appeared off the harbor of 
Charleston, but the people erected defenses with great 
energy. When the British made their attack. Colonel -. ^^g ' 
Moultrie, commanding at Sullivan's Island, gallantly 
repulsed them. They could not capture the town, and so sailed 
away for New York, where they were to join Howe. 

31. The Formation of States. — All this time the Continental 
Congress was in session at Philadelphia. Heretofore each 
colony had been governed in the name of the king ; courts were 
held and the laws were executed in his name. Now that there 
was open rebellion against the king's authority, all this must be 
changed. The people had their legislatures ; they had all the 
machinery of government; and by the advice of the Conti- 
nental Congress the colonies quickly formed themselves into 
States. 

153 



154 ESTABLISHMENT (XF THE UNION. 

South Caroliua was the first to adopt a constitution for its 
government. It did this with the distinct purpose of carrying 
on the government only till there should be reconcili- 
^^^J'q' ation with England, for which it still hoped. Rhode 
Island was the first publicly to declare its absolute 
independence of the crown. Immediately afterwards the Con- 
tinental Congress advised all the colonies to set up 
^^ „ ' their own governments. Before the close of 1776, 
six of the colonies had adopted State constitutions. 
Three others did the same in 1777. Two only, Connecticut and 
Ehode Island, continued into the present century to carry on 
their governments under the old royal charters; but they 
omitted the king's name from legal and business papers. 

32. The Question of Independence Some of the colonies 

when they became transformed into States instructed their 
delegates in Congress to declare for independence. Still there 
were many persons who clung to the hope that difficulties 
might yet be settled, and the old relations with England 
restored. One of the most effective arguments employed in 
favor of independence was a small pamphlet by Thomas 
Paine, to which he gave the name Common Sense} 

On the seventh day of June, 1776, Richard Henry Lee, act- 
ing under instructions from Virginia, submitted this resolution 
to Congress, "that these United Colonies are, and of right 
ought to be, free and independent states ; that they are absolved 
from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political 
connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and 
ought to be, totally dissolved." 

Thereupon Congress agreed to consider definitely the ques- 
tion of independence, but it took a recess of three weeks to 
give the delegates an opportunity to go back to the people and 

1 The pamphlet was published anonymously. It had a good deal of foolish 
abuse, but it argued that common sense should lead the Americans to seek 
independence, and it pointed out that inasmuch as the Americans acknowl- 
edged the king, though they were fighting to resist Parliament, no foreign 
nation would interfere in their behalf. The essay was written in plain, direct 
English, which made it very popular and intelligible. 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, 155 

learn what was the general judgment. When the members 
returned to their seats, there was no longer any doubt what 
course should be pursued. In different parts of the country, 
in town meetings, county meetings, and provincial congresses, 
resolutions were passed declaring that the time had come for 
the colonies to separate from Great Britain. 

33. The Declaration of Independence The delegates were by 

no means unanimous. There were able men who still urged 
more moderation. John Dickinson, of Pennsylvania, advised 
a more solid confederation first. But the great fact remained 
that all the colonies had practically become independent. On 
the second day of July, 1776, a final vote was taken, and Con- 
gress adopted a Declaration of Independence, written mainly by 
Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia.^ It declared what were the nat- 
ural rights of all men ; it recited the acts of George III., King 
of Great Britain, by which he had abused his authority over the 
colonies and deprived them of their rights and authority. It 
reminded the world how patiently the colonies had borne their 
injuries. It told of the petitions they had addressed to the 
king, which had no answer except new injuries. It showed 
that the colonies had appealed, not to the king only, but to 
their brethren, the people of England ; but that all had been 
in vain. Therefore, as representatives of the United States 
OF America, in general congress assembled, the delegates 
published this declaration of the independence of the States. 

1 Thomas Jefferson was born in AllDemarle Co., Virginia, April 2, 1743, He 
was a graduate of William and Mary College, where he was a hard student 
as well as a good horseman and hunter, and what was less common, an excel- 
lent performer on the violin. His father died in his early manhood, and 
Jefferson came into the management of a large estate. He took his seat with 
Washington in the Virginia House of Burgesses, and on becoming a public 
man he made a resolution which, fifty years after, he said he had always 
kept, " never to engage Avhile in public office in any kind of enterprise for the 
improvement of my fortune." His marriage brought him still more wealth. 
In January, 1779, he was governor of Virginia, and this history refers to him 
more than once. He was a man of scientific habit of mind, and one of his 
most useful contributions was our decimal system of coinage. See Morse's 
Thomas Jefferson. 



156 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION, 

They appealed to the Supreme Judge of the world, and ended 
with these words : " With a firm reliance on the protection 
of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our 
lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor" (see Appendix). 




Thomas Jefferson. 



The Fourth of July, 1776. — The Declaration was agreed to 
on the 4th of July. Later in the session it was signed by John 
Hancock of Massachusetts, President of Congress, and by fifty- 
five delegates from the thirteen colonies. Every man who 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 157 

signed it knew that if independence were not secured he would 
be in peril of being hanged as a rebel and traitor.^ A great 
crowd was gathered before the State House in Philadelphia, 
where Congress held its sessions. From the balcony the Decla- 
ration of Independence 
was read, and the bell 
in the tower rang out 
the news. 

From that time the 
State House began to 
be called Independence 
Hall. The 4th of July 
has ever since been cele- 
brated as the birthday 
of the nation. One im- 
portant consequence of 
the formal Declaration 
of Independence was 
that it divided the peo- 
ple of the country into 
patriots and loyalists. 
No one could any Ion- 

ger persuade himself j.^ Hancock. Bom 1737 ; died 1793. 

that he was a loyal 

subject of Great Britain when he was making war upon her. 

34. The Loyalists In the eyes of Great Britain those who 

called themselves patriots in America were rebels; the real 
patriots were the loyalists. Many of these were sincere well- 

1 John Hancock's signature was a very bold one, and he said the King of 
England could read it without spectacles. When the members were about to 
sign, Hancock said: "We must be unanimous; there must be no pulling dif- 
ferent ways; we must all hang together." "Yes," said Franklin, "we must 
indeed all hang together, or most assuredly we shall all hang separately." 
One of the signatures, that of Charles Carroll of Maryland, was that of a 
partly palsied hand and looked thus rather trembling. The story goes that 
some one jocosely remarked this, and Carroll added to the signature " of Car- 
rolltou " that there might be no mistake as to who he was. 




158 



ESTABLISHMENT QF THE UNION, 




ladependence Hall, 1776. 



wisliers to America when they held by the crown. To them, it 
seemed as if the great British empire were being dismembered 
by tlie unwise action of their hot-headed countrymen. They 
had no wish to have an independent nation ; they were content 
to remain as they were. Others among them took a narrow 
view, and thought only of their personal comfort and fortune. 
Nearly all suffered the loss of property, and many became exiles.^ 
35. The Formation of a Confederation. — The constitutions 
which the States formed were afterward revised from time to 
time ; but they all had one feature in common : whereas the 

1 The diaries of some who went to London are pathetic with the expression 
of homesickness for America, while some show a bitterness of feeling. The 
most important account of the loyalists is to be found in Sabine's American 
Loyalists. Long after the Revolution there lived two old ladies in Boston, who 
were daughters of Mather Byles, a loyalist minister. To the day of their 
death they made believe as hard as they could that there had been no Revo- 
lution, and when King William IV. came to the throne in 1830, they wrote to 
him telling him he still had loyal subjects in America. On the 4th of July 
they closed their blinds and tied them with black ribbons. 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 159 

charters of the colonies derived their authority from the king, 
the constitutions of the States recognized the supreme au- 
thority of the people. The States proceeded to manage their 
own affairs very much as the colonies had done, each inde- 
pendently of the others. But they needed a common power 
in dealing with the enemy, and a common authority in treat- 
ing with other nations. 

The Continental Congress was the most convenient means 
at first. It had, by common consent, brought all the colonial 
troops into one army, and it had made a Declaration of Inde- 
pendence in the name of all the colonies.^ It was clear that 
Congress could act and speak with power only when all the 
States were agreed. If they disagreed, there was no higher 
authority which could keep them together. The war and a 
common enemy now held them in union ; but that could not 
last, and Congress recommended that the States should form a 
confederation. 

It drew up thirteen articles of confederation, which, when 
accepted by all, were to be the rules by which the States should 
be governed in what related to their common interests. 
It did not propose that the Confederation should have -jX'yy ' 
anything to do with the management of those affairs 
in each State which concerned only the citizens of that State. 
To the Confederation they gave the name of the United States 
of America. The United States was to treat with foreign 
powers ; declare war ; appoint officers in the army and navy ; 
direct military operations ; levy taxes ; fix the standard of 
money, weights, and measures; manage Indian affairs; and 
establish post offices. 

This was in name very much the same authority which the 

1 Congress emphasized the union of the colonies by providing a symbol in 
the form of our present flag, which was developed out of the one raised by 
Washington when he was in command of the army in Cambridge. It retained 
the stripes, but in place of the British union jack it represented the thirteen 
states by thirteen stars. This was the final mark of complete independence. 
The flag has remained the same ever since, except that a new star has been 
added for every new State. Congress adopted the flag June 14, 1777. 



160 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 

king and Parliament of Great Britain had formerly exercised 
in the colonies ; but it was not the same in power. The States 
which had just rebelled against the tyranny of the king were 
very careful not to give the Confederation or Congress too 
much power; all the States together should not compel any 
one State to act against its will. Thus, though they called 
these articles the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual 
Union, they had really formed only a league of friendship. 

It was the first and most important step toward real union ; 
and the name which they chose, the United States of America, 
came at last to have a full meaning. At first it meant only 
that the several States in America were united in a common 
cause against a common enemy. The articles were accepted 
by eleven of the States in 1778, and by the thirteenth in 1781. 

Attempts were made to persuade Canada to join the Confed- 
eration. But the Canadian people were chiefly Frenchmen, 
who had little in common with their English neighbors. They 
had never governed themselves, and made no great objection 
now to being governed by England. 

36. Diplomatic Relations with Europe. — Before the Decla- 
ration of Independence had been made, there had been in 
Congress what was known as the Committee of Secret Corre- 
spondence. Its business was to seek the friendly aid of foreign 
nations, especially of France and Holland: of France, be- 
cause she was the enemy of England ; of Holland, because the 
merchants of that country were rich and might lend money to 
the United States. This committee had sent agents to Europe. 

Now that the United States professed to be one of the na- 
tions of the world. Congress determined to send commissioners 
to form alliances and make treaties. The States were indeed 
still a part of Europe. Their commerce was with that country ; 
their manufactured articles came from there. Though they 
had a country and began to call themselves Americans, the 
world to them was on the other side of the Atlantic. 

Franklin in France. — The one man to whom everybody 
looked as the representative of America in Europe was Ben- 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 161 

jamin Franklin. He was now seventy years of age. He was 
the only American whose name was universally known and 
honored in Europe. Besides, he had long been an agent for 
American colonies in England, and he knew, better than any 
one else, the ways of kings and courts. Franklin was sent to 
France at the end of 1776. 

The King of France and his counselors were not ready to aid 
the new republic openly, for to do that would be to run the 
risk of war with England. But the French people were stirred 
with enthusiasm. Many of their own nation had written of 
liberty; here was a nation in America fighting for liberty. 
The Declaration of Independence was read everywhere, and 
Franklin was received as a hero. 

37. Foreign Officers in the Continental Army There was 

peace throughout Europe now, after a period of war. Thus 
there were many soldiers and officers without employment. 
Great numbers flocked to America to join the army. Some 
went from love of adventure, some from a sincere enthusiasm 
for liberty. Among the most notable of the officers were 
Kosciusko, Pulaski, Kalb, Steuben, and Lafayette. 

Kosciusko and Pulaski were Poles who had fought in vain 
for the freedom of Poland. Kalb was a German who had re- 
cently been a secret agent of France sent to America to inquire 
into the condition of affairs there. Steuben was a German, a 
soldier by profession. He had learned the art of war under 
the greatest of European generals, Frederick the Great, King 
of Prussia. 

The Marquis de la Fayette was a young French noble- 
man, full of fiery zeal for freedom. He gave his money, and 
though his friends and the court tried to dissuade him, he 
gave himself; he crossed the Atlantic, and from the first 
made himself the warm friend of Washington. He was a 
brave, cheerful leader of men. 

Congress found it hard work to give a place to every French 
and German officer who applied for service. There was much 
jealousy shown by Americans. But the best of these foreign- 



162 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 



ers were of great value ; they helped in training an army of 
courageous but unskilled men, and in leading them against 
the regular troops brought into the field by Great Britain. 




Lafayette. Born 1757; died 1834. 



QUESTIONS. 

What were the movements of General Howe after he left Boston ? 
What Southern town did the British attack ? How were the colonies 
turned into States? How did the idea of independence grow? How 
did Congress find out the public sentiment ? What was the Declaration 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 163 

of Independence ? How did it close ? Who signed the document ? Why 
did it require courage to do so ? AVhat was done by the people of Phila- 
delphia ? What was the position of the loyalists ? What is a confedera- 
tion ? What chief authority had the colonies when they broke away from 
Great Britain ? What scope did the articles of confederation have ? How 
did the authority of the Confederation compare with that of the king and 
Parhameut ? What name was given to the Confederation ? Why did 
not Canada join the Confederation ? How were affairs with foreign 
nations conducted ? When and why was Franklin sent to Europe ? 
What foreigners came over to help us ? Give an account of the leading 
ones. Of what use were these foreigners ? 



SEARCH QUESTIONS. 

What became of the Bostonians who sided with the British govern- 
ment, when Howe sailed away ? Who composed the committee appointed 
to draft the Declaration of Independence ? When the Declaration of 
Independence is read in public now on the Fourth of July, how much of 
it pertains to general problems, and how much to the particular historical 
event of the separation of the colonies from Great Britain ? Repeat the 
exact language of the first two paragraphs. Who was the King of France 
at the beginning of the American Revolution? How old were the follow- 
ing on July 4, 1776 : Franklin, Washington, John Adams, Sam Adams, 
Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, Patrick Henry, Alexander Hamil- 
ton ? What was the contest in Poland that finally brought Kosciusko 
and Pulaski to this country ? 



SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. 

Compositions : 

An analysis of the Declaration of Independence, showing its different 
parts. 

Sketch of the life of Lafayette, 

A letter from a boy who heard the Declaration read in Philadelphia. 

The after history of Liberty Bell. 

Historical footnotes to the Declaration, giving examples of the several 
indictments of the king. 

Debates : 

Resolved^ That the loyalists were patriots. 

Resolved, That it would have been of great advantage to the Confed- 
eration if Canada had joined it. 

Resolved^ That John Hancock was a rebel. 



CHAPTER V. 



"THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE.! 



Hesse-Cassel (hess-cas'sel). A 
principality in the western part 
of Germany. 

StaVen. A Dutch word for 
" States." Its original form was 
Staaten. 

Schuyler (skl'ler). 

St. Leger (sant lej'er). 

Her'kimer. 

Oris'kany. 

Cabal (-ea-bal'). A number of per- 
sons joined in a secret plot for 
their own advancement. 



Court-martialed. Tried by court- 
martial, that is, by a court within 
the army for the trial of offenses 
against military discipline. 

Marque (mark). 

Bon Homme Richard (bon om re- 
shar'). 

Sera'pis. The name of an Egyptian 
deity. 

Andre (an'dra). 

De Grasse (de gras). 

Gloucester (glos'ter). 

Rochambeau (ro-shan-bo ). 



I 



38. King George III. and his Hessians The people liad 

declared they were independent of Great Britain; they must 
make good their words by hard fighting, for the king and 
Parliament had no intention of letting the colonies go. There 
was indeed a party in England, as we have seen, opposed to 
the king's policy. It grew stronger year by year. In it were 
men who said that if the king subdued the Americans he 
would increase his own personal power. Then Englishmen 
might lose their liberty, as they had come near losing it under 
Charles I. and again under Charles II. 

1 The most satisfactory work dealing with the war and with the causes that 
led up to it is John Fiske's The American Revolution. The same writer has, 
however, written a brief book for young readers entitled The War of Inde- 
pendence. Another useful work is G. W. Greeue's A Historical View of the 
American Revolution. Winsor's Reader's Handbook of the American Revo- 
lution is an excellent companion, for it is a bibliography of all the works of 
various sorts that may be consulted for this period. An admirable narrative 
is The Boys of '76. 

164 



THE WAR FOB INDEPENDENCE. 165 

King George III. was an upright man, but narrow-minded 
and stubborn. He refused to listen to men who counseled 
conciliation, and was resolved to conquer his rebellious sub- 
jects. He did not care where his soldiers came from, so long 
as they fought for him ; and he hired whole regiments of men 
from German princes, especially from the Prince of Hesse- 
Cassel, whose subjects were called Hessians. 

Such was the miserable condition of the common people 
in many parts of Europe, that these Hessian soldiers were 
almost as much the property of the prince as if they had been 
his slaves. He gave them to King George in return for 
money. The Americans, fighting for their liberty, were made 
angry by the sight of armies filled with men who had been 
hired to fight them.^ 

39. The Battle of Long Island. — In carrying on the war 
against the colonies, England had the advantage of control of 
the seacoast. She could transport her troops to America and 
shift them from one port to another; for there were no forts 
worth speaking of, and the Americans at the end of 1776 had 
only thirteen ships in the navy, although some of the colonies 
had a few active privateersmen. With their navy and their 
land forces the English undertook to occupy the main points 
on the seaboard, and from these as bases to move into the 
interior. 

The first campaign was directed toward the occupation of 
New York and the possession of the Hudson. In August, 
1776, Sir William Howe, the commander-in-chief of the Brit- 
ish forces, entered New York harbor with an army of twenty- 
five thousand. His brother. Lord Howe, accompanied him 
with a great fleet. The troops were landed on Staten Island. 
The American army, less than ten thousand strong, was in- 

1 The most thorough account of the part played by the Hessians is in The 
German Allied Troops in the North American War of Independence. Many 
of the soldiers remained in America after the war and became good American 
citizens. Many officers turned their experience to good account in the defense 
of Germany during the French Revolution. 



166 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 

trenched on Long Island and the heights overlooking New 
York. The two British commanders opened negotiations with 
General Washington. They had been instructed to propose 
conditions of peace, but they had no authority to grant inde- 
pendence, and Washington refused any other terms. ^ 

The whole British army then crossed the bay and landed 
on Long Island, south of Brooklyn. General Israel Putnam 
was in command of Brooklyn Heights, and General Sullivan, 
with a smaller force, held the roads leading to the Heights 
from the south. Earthworks extended from Wallabout Bay, 
the site of the present navy yard, to near the site of South 
Terry. 

On August 27, General Howe surrounded General Sullivan's 
force and won the battle of Long Island, capturing more than 
a thousand men, including Sullivan himself. Howe did not 
advance at once on the Heights, but set about laying siege. 
The position could not possibly be held by Putnam, especially 
in the presence of the fleet, and on the night of August 29, 
under cover of fog and rain, Washington withdrew the entire 
army, and slowly retreated up New York island, while Howe 
followed him. 

40. Captain Nathan Hale. — It was during his retreat that 
an event occurred which showed how much Americans were 
willing to venture and how bravely they could die for the 
cause in which they were engaged. A young Connecticut 
soldier, a Yale student. Captain Nathan Hale, had volun- 
teered to go within the British lines on Long Island 
^y^'J^' that he might learn the position of the enemy. On 
the way back he was arrested. No trial was allowed 
him. He was not shot as a soldier, but was hanged. "I only 

1 When General Howe sent a communication to Washington he addressed 
it to " George Washington, Esq." The American officer refused to receive it, 
and sent it back. Then General Howe tried " George Washington, Esq., etc., 
etc.," as if these et ceteras would cover any possible title. But Washington 
still refused to receive a letter so addressed. The British officer was trying to 
avoid recognition of the American as an officer and general. Congress passed, 
a resolution approving Washington's course. 






THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE, 



167 



regret," he said, as he was 
about to die, "that I have 
but one life to give for my 
country." 

41. The Operations about New 
York and in New Jersey. — New 
York remained in the enemy's 
hands during the rest of the 
war. For two months after 
the battle of Long Island the 
two armies confronted each 
other, Washington aiming to 
hold his little forces together 
and to avoid a general engage- 
ment. A battle was 
fought at White -j„',^g ' 
Plains, October 29, 
in which Howe forced Wash- 
ington back, but did not pur- 
sue his advantage. There 
were two forts on opposite 
banks of the Hudson, Fort 
Washington on the east bank, 
and Fort Lee on the west. A 
traitor in Fort Washington 
had carried plans of the fort 
to the enemy, and Howe sud- 
denly attacked the place and 
captured it with its garrison of nearly three thousand men. 
This rendered Fort Lee useless, and it was abandoned. 

The British now had control of the river, and Washing- 
ton retreated slowly through New Jersey, followed by the 
enemy, until early in December he crossed the Delaware 
River near Trenton. Howe now thought the campaign over, 
and went into winter quarters. The succession of disasters, 
beginning with the battle of Long Island, greatly discouraged 




Statue of Nathan Hale. 



168 



ESTABLISHMENT r>F THE UNION, 



the Americans. The army was very imperfectly clad and 
equipped. Many of the soldiers marched with bare, bleed- 
ing feet along the frozen roads. The people in New Jersey 
were in a panic, and in many 
cases accepted the pardon offered 
by Howe. 

To add to Washington's trou- 
bles. General Charles Lee, the 
second in command, had repeat- 
edly disregarded his or- 
ders to join him with his 
forces, and at last was 
surprised and taken pris- 
oner. It was suspected 
then, and known 
certainly long af- 
terward, that he 
was a traitor to 




.i.^f i r, ^^(^r^V^'^'"- i' 7/ • <^ "r- LAND 



the American cause. Yet he was exchanged for a British officer 

a few months after his capture and returned to his command. 

Battles of Trenton and Princeton. — Washington had made a 

series of masterly retreats. Now he revived the spirits of 



TEE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 



169 



his countrymen by a brilliant advance. Suddenly, on Christ- 
mas night, he recrossed the Delaware,^ surprised the 
enemy in camp at Trenton, and took a thousand -fSW^^' 
prisoners. This bold stroke annoyed and alarmed 
the British. Cornwallis was sent to capture the American 
army, but Washington made a forced march, and 
defeated and scattered the British forces at Prince- -1^777' 
ton. There were only eight days between the two 
battles. Washington then went into winter quarters at Morris- 
town, a controlling position. Howe, instead of occupying all 
New Jersey, as he had supposed he should, found himself 
cooped up at Brunswick and Amboy. The whole country was 
cheered by these successes. 




J"'^! 



VICINITY OF 

PHILADELPHIA 

SCALE OF MILES 



42. The Campaign in the North. — When the spring of 1777 
opened, the British formed a plan of campaign, by which, first, 

1 Great blocks of ice were swirling along in the river. General John Glover, 
with his fisherman soldiers from Cape Ann, in Massachusetts, managed the 
ferrying across. 



170 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 






^'•/''■/c.^oCinninev PoW^ 



they should cut off New England from the rest of the Con- 
federation, and second, they should take possession of Phila- 
delphia, where Congress was sitting. The great highway 
between the two parts of the country was that narrow belt 

which lies between the 
waters of Lake George and 
the navigable waters of the 
Hudson. 

To hold this belt was to 
hold the gateway of the 
North. The plan of the 
British government was to 
send an army by Lake 
Champlain from Canada, 
and another up the Hudson 
from New York; the two 
were to meet, and a third 
division going up the St. 
Lawrence and by Lake 
Ontario was to move down 
the Mohawk Valley and 
join the other two at Al- 
bany. Thus all western 
New York was to be sub- 
dued to English rule.^ 

Capture of Ticonderoga. — 
The English general, Bur- 
goyne, left the northern 

point of Lake Champlain, 
Crown Point and Ticonderoffa. -, . ,-, ^ 

^ on his southward way, 

early in June. He had with him an army of eight thousand 

men, half of whom were Germans. He was accompanied by 

Indian allies, and he had forty pieces of artillery. His first 

movement was against Fort Ticonderoga. The Americans 

1 There is a pleasant story of revolutionary scenes in the Mohawk Valley, 
called Paul and Persis. 




_C6V^Troy 



THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 171 

had failed to secure a hill which commanded it; and when 
Burgoyne took possession of the hill, the garrison 
evacuated the fort. Burgoyne kept on his way 1777' 
toward Fort Edward on the Hudson, but the Ameri- 
can general, Philip Schuyler, blocked his way so stubbornly 
that he did not reach Fort Edward till the end of July. 

The Battle of Oriskany. — Meanwhile Colonel St. Leger, at 
the head of the third division, had reached Fort Stanwix, 
near the site of the present town of Rome, and demanded its 
surrender. The commander refused. The patriots in the 
valley had already risen, and were marching under General 
Herkimer to the relief of the fort. The relieving party fell 
into an ambush laid by Joseph Brant, a remarkable Mohawk 
Indian chieftain who was with the British, and the fierce 
battle of Oriskany followed. Herkimer was killed, 
but the Americans won the day. Schuyler sent Bene- ™y ' 
diet Arnold with twelve hundred men to relieve Fort 
Stanwix, but before they reached the place, St. Leger had 
retreated by the way he came. 

43. Bennington, Brandjrwine, and Germantown. — Ten days 
after the battle of Oriskany came the less fierce but scarcely 
less important battle of Bennington. Burgoyne sent a de- 
tachment to secure some stores which the Americans had at 
Bennington. The New Hampshire militia and the Green 

Mountain men met and defeated the expedition. 

Auff 16 
They were led by General John Stark, of New -.^'rjrj ' 

Hampshire, who cheered his troops on, when they 

met the British, with the shout, "There are the redcoats! 

Before night they're ours, or Molly Stark's a widow! " 

These successes of the Americans filled them with enthusi- 
asm, and quickened their efforts. The New England States 
feared that Burgoyne intended to march eastward from the 
Hudson, and companies from the towns of Connecticut and 
Massachusetts hurried to join the army. Burgoyne was now 
cut off from retreat the way he had come, and he looked 
anxiously for reenforcements from New York to come up the 



172 



ESTABLISHMENT JOF THE UNION. 



MAP OF THE COUNTRY 
BETWEEN 

MONTREAL and NEW YORK ^ 




7m0h 

; ^/ '-■^ /"tt El^Url^.- 



J/j)) 



/ f 



, /Valley H. ^ Allaiujf i 













P( \n* ' 



J i <^ 













river. But they did not 
come. Washington was keep- 
ing Howe busy all the sum- 
mer, preventing him from 
crossing New Jersey to Phila- 
delphia. 

At last Howe took his army 
from N^ew York by sea, but the 
Americans had placed obstruc- 
tions in the Delaware River ; 
so he sailed up the Chesapeake 
and landed his army at Elk- 
ton. Washington, who was 
encamped near Newtown, 
twenty miles above Philadel- 
phia, immediately marched his 
forces southward. He passed 
through the city, and came 
face to face with the enemy 
near Chadd's Ford, on the 
Brandy wine. 

Here a battle was fought, 
which resulted in the defeat 
of the Americans, 



Sept. 11, 
1777. 



who retreated toward 
Chester. Congress 
was alarmed, and hastily left 
Philadelphia for Lancaster, 
and afterward for York. The 
British entered the city; but 
the main army lay near Ger- 
mantown. Washing- 
irjrjrj tou madc an unex- 
pected attack upon 
them, and for a while the 
Americans were victorious ; 



THE WAB FOR INDEPENDENCE. 173 

but a fog confused them, and they were forced to retreat to 
the hills above Whitemarsh. 

44. Defeat of Burgoyne. — The country was greatly depressed 
by the loss of Philadelphia, but the movement of the American 
army there had effectually prevented Howe from sending a 
large force from New York up the Hudson to support Bur- 
goyne. It is true that he had received no orders from London 
to do this ; by a blunder, orders were sent to Burgoyne to move 
south to meet Howe, but none to Howe to meet Burgoyne. Of 
his own accord, however, he sent a small force when he could 
spare it, under General Clinton. 

It was too late. Clinton went as far only as Kingston, for 
Burgoyne was defeated in a series of engagements, and sur- 
rendered to General Gates at Saratoga, October 17, 1777. 
Gates was an ambitious, scheming man, who had scarcely 
anything to do with the victory; that was due largely to the 
bravery of General Arnold and the good generalship of Gen- 
eral Schuyler, who was removed from the head of the army 
just as all things were ripe for final victory. 

45. The Alliance with France. — The surrender of Burgoyne 
proved to be the turning point of the war. It gave artillery 
and arms to the American army, it encouraged the soldiers, 
and it made a great impression in Europe. In England the 
opposition party was strengthened, and men began to talk 
loudly of making peace. In France the government 

no longer held back. A formal alliance was entered 17^0' 
into with the United States, by which the king, 
Louis XVI., pledged himself to furnish men, ships, and money 
to complete the war. 

The Position of England. — As soon as the action of Louis 
XVI. was known, England declared war on France. The eyes 
of all England were now turned to the Earl of Chatham, as the 
one statesman who could take the helm, a man feared by 
France and admired by Americans. But King George, whose 
insanity was gaining on him, hated the Earl of Chatham with 
a furious hatred, and utterly refused to call him to his aid as 



174 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 

prime minister.^ He might even have been compelled to call 
him, and Chatham might even then have restored peace and 
formed some kind of union between Great Britain and Amer- 
ica, but he died shortly after.^ Lord North continued in 
power, and lamely tried to win over the United States by send- 
ing commissioners to treat with the rebels, though without 
offering independence. The commissioners were received with 
contempt. 

46. Valley Forge and the Conway Cabal. — While this was 

going on in Europe, the winter was passing in America, and 

bringing with it severe trials to the American army. The 

British army was comfortably quartered in New York and 

Philadelphia. Washington, with the principal American 

forces, had gone into winter quarters at Valley Forge, 

' a place chosen as the best point from which to watch 

the movements of the British in Philadelphia. 

The first enthusiasm of the war had been spent. The 
great men who had sat in Congress were no longer there. 
Some had been sent on missions to Europe; some were 
busy in their States. The Confederation had no money. 
No revenue was coming in, for there was but little com- 
merce. Each State needed all the money it could raise 
from its own citizens. Congress therefore borrowed money 
abroad and at home. It could only give its promises to pay 
when peace should come, and these promises seemed to people 
worth less and less. How could Congress redeem its promises 
even if peace should come? Congress had no power; it was 
only a committee of the States. It was the army, and not 
Congress, which was to win peace. 

There was no money to pay the soldiers or to buy food 

1 "This episode appears to me the most criminal in the whole reign of 
George III., and in my own judgment it is as criminal as any of those acts 
which led Charles to the scaffold." This is the opinion of a recent English 
historian, Mr. Lecky, in his History of England in the Eighteenth Century, 
Vol. IV., p. 83. 

2 See a splendid passage in. Chapter VIII. of Fiske's The American Revo- 
lution. 



THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 



175 



and clothing for them. The country people were tempted 
by the gold of the British, and turned away from the paper 
money of Congress. Their provisions 
found their way into Philadelphia, and 
not to the bleak camp at Valley Forge. 
In this time of general discouragement, 
meaner spirits came to the front, and 
murmurs arose against Washington. A 
plot Avas formed by some of the officers, 
which was called, from the name of one 
of them, the Conway Cabal. The de- 
sign was to displace Washington, and 
put Gates at the head of the army. It 
was a plot of officers only ; the common 
soldiers took no part in it. The cabal 
failed utterly. It was rebuked in Con- 
gress; the officers who took part in it 
tried to win over Lafayette, but that 
soldier was loyal to his great chief. ^ 

Sufferings of the Soldiers The Con- 
tinental army, half clad, half fed, 
housed only in canvas tents and a few 
log huts, wore through the terrible win- 
ter in the bleak country. The blood 
from their naked feet stained the snow. 




A Soldier in the Continental 
Army. 

To overcome such 



1 The intrigue brought out the loyalty of Washington's friends. A motion 
was before Congress, presented by one of the cabal, which was liostile to 
Washington. His friends bestirred themselves. They needed one more vote. 
In their extremity they went to William Duer, a member from New York, who 
was dangerously ill. Duer sent for his doctor. 

** Doctor," he asked, " can I be carried to Congress? " 
" Yes ; but at the risk of your life," was the answer. 
** Do you mean that I should expire before reaching the place? " 
** No," came the answer ; " but I would not answer for your leaving it alive." 
" Very Avell, sir. You have done your duty, and I will do mine ! " exclaimed 
Duer. "Prepare a litter for me; if you will not, somebody else will, but I 
prefer your aid." Duer had already started, when an absent member came 
back suddenly from the camp, and Duer's services, fortunately, were not 
needed. 



176 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 

• 

misery was to gain fresh courage. It was at Valley Forge, 
rather than in great battles, that American patriotism showed 
most clearly. In the lonely country, too, there was patriot- 
ism. The women were doing men's work, because the men 
were in the army. The letters which traveled between the 
camp and the country farms are records of patient endurance. 
The great work of the winter was in the drilling and training 
of the ragged regiments at Valley Forge.. This was especially 
the work of Steuben, who turned the camp into a great mili- 
tary school; and when the winter was over he had made a 
solid, well-disciplined army.^ 

47. Battle of Monmouth Court House. — The French alliance 
had made America confident of success. A French fleet was on 
its way, and the British government ordered Sir Henry Clin- 
ton, who had succeeded Howe, to concentrate his forces in New 
York. Clinton proposed to cross New Jersey to Sandy Hook, 
where his fleet would transport the troops to New York. 
Washington immediately set his own army in motion to inter- 
cept the British, and fell upon them at Monmouth Court House. 
The battle that followed was a disastrous one for both sides. 

It might have been a victorious one for the Americans, 
"^^^^J^' but for the disobedience to Washington's orders 

shown by Charles Lee, who had returned to his com- 
mand and was an active member of the Conway Cabal. Wash- 
ington saved the day, and his army kept the field. From that 
time his supremacy was unquestioned. Lee was court-mar- 
tialed and was deprived of his command for a year. 

48. Actions in 1778. — There were no great engagements 
in the summer of 1778 after Monmouth. Washington took 
up his old position at White Plains and expected, with the 
aid of the French fleet, to reduce New York; but some of 
the vessels were too large to enter the harbor, and the fleet 
went to Newport, where the English destroyed the vessels 
they had there to prevent them from falling into the hands of 
the French. 

1 See Guy Humphrey McMaster's poem, "The Old Continentals." 




Jt 



THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 177 

A month later General Sullivan, in command of the Ameri- 
can forces in Ehode Island, planned to attack the British 
at Newport, and depended upon the French fleet to aid 
him. But a British fleet came from New York, and the 
French went outside the harbor to attack it. A great storm 
arose which scattered all the vessels. The British 
fleet retired to New York, and the French fleet re- ^^',^g ' 
turned to Newport, but afterward put into Boston 
for repairs; and General Sullivan, after a gallant fight, was 
compelled to retreat. 

The First Campaign in the South The British now changed 

their plan of operations. Instead of sending an army to 
attack Washington, they sent an expedition to the South, 
intending to occupy the Southern States. The expedition 
went by sea and captured Savannah. With this 
foothold they recovered possession in Georgia and nnnn ' 
set up again the royal governor in that State. 
But they did not at once push operations into the Carolinas. 

49. The Foreign Alliance. — Meanwhile Congress was relying 
largely on France and expecting peace at any moment. The 
people on the seaboard went about their business of farming, 
and left the army to the care of Congress ; but though Con- 
gress could borrow some money abroad, it had no power to 
compel the States to raise money. Its own promises to pay, 
in the shape of paper money, or Continental currency, as it 
was called, became so worthless, that the phrase came into 
use, which still lingers, "not worth a Continental." France 
was playing her own game. She was not fighting merely to 
secure the independence of America. She meant that the 
United States should have its western boundary at the Alle- 
ghanies. She intended to recover for herself the great valley 
of the Mississippi, and to further her ends she drew Spain 
into the alliance. 

Operations on the Frontier. — But while France and Spain 
were parceling out the western country between them, the 
people in that vast region were taking affairs into their own 



178 ESTABLISHMENT. OF THE UNION. 

hands. As early as 1776 the county of Kentucky in the 
State of Virginia had been formed, and in 1778 the frontiers- 
men had been pushing their way into the valleys of the Cum- 
berland, the Kentucky, and the Ohio. The British commander 
at Detroit, Colonel Hamilton, proposed to use the Indians in 
an attack upon the settlements. But the frontiersmen, under 
George Rogers Clark, did not stand on the defensive. 

They carried the war into the country held by the British 
posts, and before the close of 1779 had brought all the region 
now included in Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois under the control 
of the United States. Besides, another expedition had cap- 
tured the English forts on the Mississippi as far south as 
Natchez. All this was important for another reason. The 
conquest and occupation of this region helped to block the 
design of France and Spain to make the Alleghanies the west- 
ern boundary of the new United States. 

50. Wayne's Exploit. — At the East, in the same summer of 
1779, occurred the brilliant exploit of General Anthony Wayne, 
"Mad Anthony Wayne," as he was called, for his daring, in 

the recapture of a half-finished fort at Stony Point 
^ y ' on the Hudson, which General Clinton had seized. 

Wayne led his men in the night time up the steep, 
and in half an hour after the first shot was fired, captured the 
fort and all its stores. 

51. Naval Engagements At sea there were some remark- 
able engagements. The Americans had little that could be 
called a navyj but Congress issued letters of marque to mer- 
chant vessels. Under these letters the captains had authority 
to make war upon the enemy wherever found. There was of 
course little commerce possible, and many vessels were thus 
turned into privateers. 

The most famous of the captains of such vessels was John 

Paul Jones. ^ He hovered about the English coast, and wrought 

such mischief among the merchantmen that he diminished the 

commerce of some ports one half. Benjamin Eranklin, in his 

1 Jones is really the hero in Cooper's exciting story, The Pilot, 



I 



THE WAR FOB INDEPENDENCE. 



179 



familiar papers on frugality, used to begin with the words 
"Poor Eichard says." So when the King of France gave Jones 
a ship, Jones named it the Bon Homme llichard, which was 
the French way of saying "Poor Eichard." The Bon Homme 
Eichard had a great fight with the English frigate 
Serapis off the coast of England. The two vessels t^r^^g ' 
lay alongside of each other, with the muzzles of the 
cannon almost touching. Both crews fought bravely j and so 
terrible was the 

fire that when at ^^^P^Tr , .v\\|^tlflfflr 
last the Serapis "''' ^ 
surrendered, the 
Bon Homme Eich- 
ard was just ready 
to sink. 

52. Operations in 
the South. — In the 
spring of 1780 the 
British, after a 
two months' siege, 
took Charleston; 
they were also in 
possession of Sa- 
vannah, and had a 
large army in the 
field. At first it 
was opposed by no 
American army. 
But the patriotic planters gathered in companies, and rode here 
and there under the leadership of daring men like Marion,^ 
Sumter, and Pickens. They harassed the enemy, who might 
be in force, but who could do nothing toward suppressing the 
patriotic spirit of half the people. For the people were 
nearly equally divided in allegiance. Every plantation was 
an armed camp, and neighbor fought neighbor. It was only so 

1 See Bryant's stirring poem, " Song of Marion's Men." 




John Paul Jones. Born 1747 ; died 1792. 



180 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION, 

long as an army on either side occupied a district that the 
district could be said to be for the king or for Congress.^ 

At last an American army came down from the North, 
headed by Kalb. Later Congress sent Gates to take com- 
mand of all the forces in the South. Gates met the 
if'ftn ' ^I'itish under Cornwallis, and was disastrously de- 
feated at Camden, in South Carolina, where the brave 
Kalb fell, mortally wounded. The country was greatly de- 
pressed; but worse was to come. 

53. Arnold's Treachery. — Benedict Arnold, a general in the 
American army, was a man of great courage; but he was a 
selfish, cruel, and covetous man, and had come under censure 
for misconduct while in command at Philadelphia. At his 
request he was transferred to West Point, on the Hudson, a 
post of great importance. It was strongly fortified, and had 
a great deposit of military stores. Here were gathered some 
three thousand men. Arnold had long been in secret commu- 
nication with the British, and now agreed to betray West 
Point into their hands. 

He made the final arrangements with Major John Andre, 
a British officer; but Andre, on his way back to the British 
camp, was stopped by some patriots. They searched 
^TtSO^'"' ^^^^' ^^^ fo^ind hidden in his stockings papers which 
revealed Arnold's treachery. Andre was tried as a 
spy, condemned, and hanged. He was engaged in a detest- 
able business; but the feeling that he was the victim 
17ftn ^^ ^ mean man has made Americans generous to his 
memory. Arnold fled before he could be arrested. 
The British government paid him a large sum of money and 
gave him a command, but he was despised by the men who 
had bought him.^ 

54. The Southern Campaign. — Arnold's treachery came to 
nothing, and affairs in the South took a turn for the better. 

1 See Kennedy's novel, Horse-Shoe Robinson. 

2 A Life of Arnold by Isaac N. Arnold gives the facts of his career and 
says the best that can be said for the unhappy man. 



THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 



181 



o^V^ 



Washington obtained the appointment of General ISTathanael 
Greene^ in the place of Gates. Greene showed at once the 
qualities of a great gen- 
eral. He secured ad- ^^.V^v *^* ^'^ 
ditions to the weakened :!5-^' *>^ '^^*' 
Southern army, and be- v \^ 
gan a masterly cam- * ^ 
paign. In December, 
1780, Greene was at 
Charlotte, North Caro- 
lina, and Cornwallis was 
in South Carolina, mov- 
ing northward. 

Greene divided his 
forces into two bodies. 
His plan was to hover 
about the British army, 
and while avoiding a 
general battle, to harass 
the enemy continually. 
General Greene was in 
command of one divi- 
sion; General Morgan, of the other. In front of Morgan was 
the British officer Tarleton, known as a cruel fighter, 
who had laid waste much of the country. Morgan yjoi ' 
chose his position well, fought the battle of Cowpens 
with splendid bravery, put to rout a fourth part of Corn- 
^wallis's army, and joined Greene. 

1 Nathanael Greene, the son of a Rhode Island Quaker, was born May 27, 
1742. He worked at the blacksmith's forge, and was chosen a member of the 
Rhode Island legislature. He joined a local military company and for this 
was expelled from the Society of Friends. He was appointed in command of 
the Rhode Island forces that joined in the siege of Boston and there became 
a fast friend of Washington, who secured his appointment as quartermaster- 
general in 1778. He was in some respects the foremost military genius in the 
war after Washington. At the close of the war he received valuable grants 
of land from Georgia, North Carolina, and South Carolina, and died on his 
estate near Savannah, June 19, 1786. See his Life by his grandson. 




Nathanael Greene, 



182 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION, 



Now followed a series of masterly movements by Greene, 
lasting through the winter, the sirring, and the following sum- 
mer. With a small, ill-clad, and ill-furnished army, he 
pushed the British from post to post. His final 
1781 ' ^^^*-^® ^^^^^ Cornwallis was fought at Guilford Court 
House. Although Greene was defeated, Cornwallis 
retired to Wilmington, North Carolina, and finally to Vir- 
ginia. There he was skillfully kept at bay by Lafayette. 
Meanwhile Washington was threatening New York. He 
meant to make General Clinton believe that he intended to at- 
tack him from the land, 
while Count de Grasse, 
in command of the 
French fleet, attacked 
him by sea. This was 
to prevent Clinton from 
sending any troops to 
Cornwallis. The feint 
succeeded so well that 
Clinton instead sent to 
Cornwallis for troops to 
aid in the defense of 
New York. Suddenly 
the French fleet sailed 
away for Virginia, and 




The Siege of Torktown. 



Washington with his army made forced marches to Yorktown. 

Before Clinton knew what was done, the French fleet and 
the American army held Cornwallis in a trap. Cornwallis 
now begged Clinton to come to his rescue with ships and men. 
The British had thrown up fortifications at Yorktown and 
Gloucester, on opposite sides of the York Eiver. The French 
troops under Eochambeau, and the American troops under 
Washington, surrounded the British works, while the French 
fleet held the entrance to the bay. 

55. The Surrender of Cornwallis. — The disposition of the 
troops was completed by the end of September, and the siege 



THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 



183 



of Yorktown was begun. Every day there was an advance, 
and brilliant attacks were made upon the British works. The 
situation of Cornwallis was getting desperate. His ships were 
on fire; great numbers of his men were in hospital; Clinton 
had not arrived, though he had sent word he was coming. 
Cornwallis determined to leave his sick behind him, and re- 
move across the river to Gloucester. Then he meant to break 
through the small 
French force stationed 
behind Gloucester, in 
the hope of joining 
Clinton. 

He began his move- 
ment the night of Octo- 
ber 15; but when a 
portion of his troops 
had crossed, a storm 
arose which scattered 
his boats. It was no 
longer possible to hold 
Yorktown, and the 
19th of October, 1781, 
General Cornwallis 
surrendered his whole 
army to General Wash- 
ington. On that day 
Clinton left New York 

to join Cornwallis. A week later, when off the Virginia capes, 
he heard the news of the surrender. It was too late for him 
to be of any service, and he returned to New York. 

56. The Treaty of Peace. — When news of the surrender of 
Cornwallis reached England, Parliament was just reassem- 
bling. The king's friends tried hard to make Parliament vote to 
prosecute the war vigorously, but the opposing party increased 
in strength and resolution. They compelled the king to dis- 
miss his ministers and take the advice of those who favored 




Lord Corn-w 



B 18; died 1805. 



184 ESTABLISHMENT OE THE UNION. 

the independence of the United States. The king was will- 
ing to have peace with his colonies; he was ready to yield 
the points which were in dispute when the war broke out, but 
he was very loath to grant independence. 

The American commissioners who had been sent to Paris 
were John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, and John Jay. They 
declared that they would consider no treaty until independence 
was acknowledged. The king was obliged to yield. Then one 
question after another was raised. The question of boundary 
was one ; the English wished to keep the Ohio Valley and part 
of Maine. The property of the Tories had been confiscated; 
England wished it restored. The right to fish off the Banks 
of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia was a valuable right; 
England tried to exclude New England fishermen. 

These and other questions caused delay. The delay was 
increased by the efforts of France and Spain to postpone 
the final settlem-ent until they should get what they wanted 
from Great Britain. At last, however, the wisdom and 
patience of the American commissioners were rewarded, and 
the treaty of peace between England and the United States 
was signed in Paris, September 3, 1783. 

57. The Breaking up of the Army. — The English govern- 
ment had already withdrawn its troops from Savannah and 
Charleston in 1782. On the 25th of November, 1783, the 
British army evacuated New York. Washington and his 
officers, and George Clinton, governor of the State of New 
York, marched into the town with a few companies of sol- 
diers. General Washington had made a farewell address to 
his army at Newburgh, on the Hudson, where he had been in 
camp for nearly two years. Now he parted, with 

^®°' '*' deep feeling, from the officers who had been close to 

him through all the years of the war Then he returned his 

commission to Congress, which was sitting at Annap- 

^^' ' olis, and went back, a private citizen, to his estate 
at Mt. Vernon, in Virginia. 

The army had been breaking up all through the summer. 



I 



THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 185 

and now it was entirely disbanded. The officers and soldiers 
who had homes returned to them; but many had no homes. 
They wandered destitute for weeks and months about the 
country. Everywhere they found the people restless and 
uncertain of what was to come. 

QUESTIONS. 

How did the affairs in America affect politics in England ? What 
course did the king pursue to secure soldiers ? What special advantage 
did England have in attacking the colonies ? What was the first point 
of attack ? Narrate the events connected with the battle of Long Island. 
Tell the story of Nathan Hale. What followed the battle of Long Island ? 
Describe the operations in New Jersey. Tell how Washington encouraged 
the people. What was the British plan for the Northern campaign ? Nar- 
rate the capture of Ticonderoga ; the battle of Oriskany ; the battle of 
Bennington. What were Washington's movements at this time? Nar- 
rate the events leading up to and including the battle of Saratoga. What 
effect did the defeat of Burgoyne have on the country ? What effect 
abroad ? What course did Louis XVI. pursue ? What resulted in Eng- 
land ? Where did the army go into winter quarters ? What was the 
condition of the Confederation ? What was the Conway Cabal ? Describe 
the state of the army at Valley Forge. Describe the movement ending 
with the battle of Monmouth Court House. Narrate the events of the 
summer of 1778. What efforts did the British make to regain the South? 
What was the financial condition of the country ? Describe the operations 
on the frontier. Narrate Wayne's exploit. Tell the story of John Paul 
Jones. What took place in the South in 1780 ? Tell the story of Arnold's 
treachery and Andre's execution. Narrate the events of Greene's move- 
ments in the South. Describe the strategy by which Cornwallis was shut 
up in Yorktown. Tell the event of the surrender of Cornwallis. Who 
were the American commissioners in Paris ? What was the state of 
things in England ? What questions were involved in the treaty ? When 
was the Treaty of Paris signed ? What events followed the treaty ? 

SEARCH QUESTIONS. 

Was General Lee a traitor ? Name successive military operations on 
Lake Cham plain from Champlain down. What did the British do with 
themselves in Philadelphia ? Where did Congress sit when the British 
held Philadelphia ? What was the origin of the word " cabal " ? Describe 



186 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 

the circumstances connected with the death of the Earl of Chatham. 
How did the word "Cornwallis" later come into popular use? What 
serious disturbance at Newburgh was quieted by the influence of Washing- 
ton ? Who governed the Americans during the Revolution ? Who said 
"Howe has not taken Philadelphia, so much as Philadelphia has taken 
Howe," and why was it said ? 

SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. 

Compositions : 

A comparison of Nathan Hale and Major Andrd. 

A detailed account of the Conway Cabal. 

The story of the capture of Stony Point. 

The story of Jane McCrea. 

Arnold before and Arnold after his treason. 

Debates : 

Hesolved, That without the French alliance independence could not 
have been won. 

Besolvecl, That the cause of human freedom would have been advanced 
if the United States could have remained a part of the British empire. 

Besolved, That Americans should have secured their independence 
■without recourse to war. 




Liberty Bell, Independence Hall. 



I 



CHAPTER VI. 



THE CONFEDERATION AND THE CONSTITUTION. 



Quo'rum. Such a number of per- 
sons at a meeting as is necessary, 
under its rules, to transact busi- 
ness. It is the first word of a 



Latin sentence, indicating this, 
and means "of whom." 
Ratify (rat'i-fy). To give assent 
to. 



58. The Debt created by the War. — The war was over, and 
there were thirteen States in America, independent of Great 
Britain. They were held together by the Articles of Confed- 
eration, and the common business of the country was in the 
hands of the United States in Congress assembled. The 
chief business was to provide for the payment of the debt 
incurred in the war. This debt, to say nothing of the inter- 
est on it, was about forty million dollars. 

Congress had been raising money in three ways. It had 
asked the separate States to provide money; it had borrowed 
from friendly European countries; and it had issued its own 
notes, or promises to pay. The States could raise money by 
taxation, but Congress had no power to tax. Yet the States, 
too, with the exception of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, 
and Virginia, issued their own paper money and relied 
mainly on that. The States gave Congress not more than 
one sixth of what was asked for. After the alliance with 
France, it was possible to borrow money abroad, and about 
eight millions was obtained in that way; but when the interest 
was due, it was necessary to borrow more money to pay that. 

As for the paper money issued by Congress, the Conti- 
nental currency, it was like all other promises to pay, good 
only when the promisor has something to pay with; and, as 
we have seen, it fell very low in value as money. It took all 

187 



188 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 




the skill and most of the private wealth of Eobert Morris,^ 
the Superintendent of Finance and a noble patriot, to provide 
means for carrying on the war. The debt most pressing was 
about five million dollars due the army. Congress had been 
shamefully neglectful of this debt, and it had required all 

the influence of Wash- 
ington to keep the sol- 
diers from rising in their 
wrath and compelling 
Congress to pay them. 

59. The Public Lands. 
— What had the Confed- 
eration with which to 
pay its debts? The most 
valuable property it had 
was the large area of un- 
Oontmental Cnrreiicy. occupied land. By the 

treaty of peace. Great Britain gave up to the United States 
the territory between the Alleghanies and the Mississippi. 
Now this territory was pretty well covered with claims which 
the separate colonies, now States, had set up over it; but the 
claims had been on paper, and any colonizing had been by 
person and not by the States; the boundaries of the several 
claims were very indefinite. It was now proposed that the 
different States should give up to the Confederation their title 
to these Western lands ; and this they did, although Georgia 
did not give up hers until as late as 1801. 

The Northwest Territory Congress used this great property 

in land to pay the debts of the Confederation. It gave lands 
to officers and soldiers in payment of their claims against the 



1 Morris was born in Liverpool, January 20, 1734, and came to this country, 
when a boy of thirteen, with his father. He was placed in the counting-house 
of Charles Willing, a wealthy Philadelphia merchant. He rose to a partner- 
ship, and when the Revolution came, threw his influence upon the patriot 
side at the jeopardy of his property. When the new government went into 
operation, he was offered the post of Secretary of the Treasury, but advised 
Washington to appoint Hamilton. He died May 8, 1806. 



CONFEDERATION AND CONSTITUTION. 189 

government. Many of these moved out to their lands, and 
companies were formed for colonizing, especially in the Ohio 
Valley. But the holding of this Western country by the 
Confederation meant a great deal more than a means to pay 
debts. As before, a Continental army under Congress was a 
sign of national union, so now the fact that all the States in 
union held a vast territory in common was a sign that the 
people were forming a nation, and Congress was compelled to 
take some measures for governing the territory. 

By what is known as the Ordinance of 1787, Congress 
erected all the district northwest of the Ohio into one ter- 
ritory.^ It appointed a governor and council and judges. 
The people residing in the territory were to choose their own 
Assembly and make their own laws. The most important 
provision of the ordinance was that by which slavery was 
forever excluded from the Northwest Territory. 

60. The Trade with England. — While Congress was appar- 
ently powerless, each State had its regular government and 
courts of justice, and each had seaports. The trade with 
Europe, which had been interrupted, was resumed. England 
treated the States very much as she had treated the colonies. 
She sent great quantities of goods over the sea, but required 
that all produce from America should be brought to her in 
one of two ways, — it must come either in a British ship or 
in a ship belonging to the State from which the goods came. 
EngLand also forbade the British colonies to trade directly 
with the United States. This was intended especially to gov- 
ern the West Indian trade. 

By these various regulations England tried to keep the com- 
merce of the United States in her own hands. The great 
influx of English goods carried off much of the coin left in 
the States, for English merchants would not take paper money. 
It broke down the feeble manufactories which had been set up 
when no goods could be had from England. It brought a 
great many merchants in the States into debt to English mer- 
1 The text of the Ordinance will be found in the Appendix. 



190 ESTABLISHMENT (JF THE UNION. 

chants. These transactions were with the separate States. 
Congress had no power to regulate trade, and thus was un- 
able to come in between England and the States. 

61. The Claims of England and Spain Under the treaty of 

1783 Congress was to recommend the several States to restore 
the property taken from the loyalists. The States were still 
bitter against these men, and refused any such consideration. 
This threw the loyalists upon the British government for. 
support. The States also made it difficult for English mer- 
chants to collect debts due before the war. England made 
this an excuse for refusing to abide by that article of the 
treaty which required her to abandon the Western posts. She 
still kept garrisons there and controlled the important fur 
trade which centered about them. 

Spain, again, claimed control of the Mississippi Eiver and 
refused to give free navigation. There were no States on the 
banks, but there were active settlements in the western parts 
of Kentucky and Tennessee that found the river the natural 
highway, and they raised a loud protest when Congress seemed 
ready to grant the claim of Spain. They threatened to detach 
themselves from the United States altogether, and indeed the 
western counties of North Carolina undertook to set them- 
selves up into a State of their own called Franklin. The 
part of Virginia which afterward became Kentucky threatened 
a similar attempt. 

62. Internal Disorders. — The separate States tried to get 
away the European trade from one another. One State would 
bid for the trade by offering to receive goods at lower rates of 
duties. Then two States which were neighbors would make an 
agreement to secure for themselves trade which might other- 
wise go to another part of the country. Disorders arose within 
the separate States. When the courts decided against debtors, 

the creditors would call on the State authorities to 

help them collect the debts. The people who owed 

money and had none to pay saw their goods and cattle taken 

from them. This enraged them so that they rose in riots 



CONFEDERATION AND CONSTITUTION. 191 

against the courts and sheriff. In Massachusetts, Daniel 
Shays, a captain in the Continental army, headed a body of 
men who for six months resisted the authority of the State. 

63. Failure of the Confederation. — The whole country seemed 
to be falling to pieces. Congress could with difficulty bring 
enough members together to form a quorum. Scarcely any 
one outside paid attention to what it did. Least of all was 
it respected by foreign governments. John Adams, who had 
been sent as minister to England, could hardly get a hearing 
there. It was impossible for the country to go on as it was. 
The States were separating from one another and from Con- 
gress. 

Yet all the while the people were busy. They were crossing 
the mountains into the Western country. The very attempt of 
the western counties of North Carolina to make a new State 
showed that the people insisted upon governing themselves.^ 
Just as the people before the war had met in convention, so 
now they resolved to hold a new one. Virginia spoke earnestly 
through its legislature, and a convention was called " to take 
into consideration the situation of the United States." 

64. The Constitutional Convention. — The convention met in 
Independence Hall, Philadelphia, May 14, 1787, and sat four 
months. The States sent their ablest men as delegates. 
Washington was chairman; Franklin and Morris were mem- 
bers; and there were two young men whom the convention 
was to make famous, — Alexander Hamilton of New York 
and James Madison of Virginia. All felt the need of giving 
greater authority to the Confederation, but the constitution 
they were to draw up was to be submitted to the several 
States, and must be agreed to by nine of the States before it 
could become the law of the land. The members knew how 
jealous the States were of Congress, and they had to use the 
greatest wisdom to draft a constitution which would be 
accepted. They had before them the written constitutions of 

1 The fullest treatment of the Western movement is to be found in the very 
readable volumes of Roosevelt's The Winning of the West. 



192 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 



the several States, and they drew many details from these; 
the Constitution of the United States was in the main the 
application to the whole country of the mode of government 
which had worked well in the several States. 

65. The Federalist. — The convention finally adopted the 

Constitution, ^ and reported its work to Congress, and 

^iT^ft?"^' Coi^gi'sss submitted it to the States. At once the 

Constitution began to be discussed. Everywhere, in 

State conventions, in assemblies, in town meetings, in country 




Interior of Independence HalL 

1 Dr. John Fiske, in his work on The Critical Period of American History, 
which is a clear analysis of the six years 1783-1789, closes his sixth chapter 
with a reference to Franklin's successive efforts, beginning with the Albany 
Congress of 1754, to bring about a closer union. Franklin had signed the Dec- 
laration of Independence in the very room where the convention was sitting. 
" Eleven years more had passed, and he had been spared to see the noble aim 
of his life accomplished. There was still, no doubt, a chance of failure, but 
hope now reigned in the old man's breast. On the back of the President's 
quaint black armchair there was emblazoned a half-sun, brilliant with its 
gilded rays. As the meeting was breaking up, and Washington arose, Franklin 
pointed to the chair, and made it the text for prophecy. ' As I have been 
sitting here all these weeks,' said he, * I have often wondered whether yonder 
sun is rising or setting. But now I know that it is a rising sun! ' " 



CONFEDERATION AND CONSTITUTION. 



193 




stores, by friends, in 
newspapers and letters, 
every article was de- 
bated. Hamilton, Mad- 
ison, and John Jay^ 
wrote a series of essays 
which went over all the 
questions with great 
thoroughness. They 
showed the reasons for 
adopting the Constitu- 
tion and did much to 
convince people. These 
essays were published 
at the time in news- 
papers, and afterward 
were collected into a 
volume called The 
Federalist. 

66. The Adoption of the Constitution. — Delaware was the 
first to ratify the Constitution, which it did unanimously. 

1 John Jay was of Huguenot descent, and was born in New York, Decem- 
ber 12, 1745. He graduated at King's College, now Columbia University, in 
1766. He was a member of the Continental Congress, and was very active in 
the affairs of his own State. He drafted the constitution adopted by New 
York, and was chief justice of the State. Washington appointed him the first 
chief justice of the United States. Daniel Webster said : " When the spotless 
ermine of the judicial robe fell on John Jay, it touched nothing less spotless 
than itself." He died May 17, 1829. See the volume on him in American 
Statesman series, by George Pellew. 

2 Alexander Hamilton was born in the island of Nevis, West Indies, 
January 11, 1757. He was thrown on his own resources very early, and 
showed such remarkable ability that his friends sent him to America to be 
educated. He came into public notice at a meeting held when he was a student 
at Columbia, then King's College, when he made a fervid speech in favor of 
colonial rights. Early in 1776 he was given command of a company of artillery 
by the New York Convention. He did so well at Long Island and White 
Plains that he attracted Washington's attention, and was invited to join his 
staff. From this followed an intimate association. He studied finance during 
the Revolution, and after the war studied law, and was admitted to the bar. 



Ali-XAiiii' r Hamilton.- 



194 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 

Pennsylvania followed, five days afterward, with a two-thirds 
vote in favor. The tight was hardest in Virginia and New 
York; but these States accepted the Constitution; in the lat- 
ter, Alexander Hamilton, more than any other man, influenced 
the members. As State after State came into line, the move- 
ment gathered strength, but North Carolina and Rhode Island 
did not ratify until after the new government was in opera- 
tion. 

The change from a confederation to a union was a great step 
forward. The Confederation had no way to compel the States 
to act as one body; it could ask for money to carry on the 
government, but it could lay no taxes for raising money. The 
Union was at once made strong by the first article of the 
Constitution, in which we may read: "Congress shall have 
power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, 
to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and gen- 
eral welfare of the United States." 

Moreover, as amplifying this power, the Union alone could 
make treaties with other nations; maintain an army and 
navy; build forts; make rules for the admission of foreigners 
and foreign goods into the country; coin and issue money; 
adopt standards of weight and measure ; have supreme control 
over rivers and harbors, and govern directly the territory not 
occupied by States. 

QUESTIONS. 

What was the debt incurred in the war ? What three means did Con- 
gress have for paying it ? What was the trouble with the paper money ? 
What great financier gave his services ? What difficulties did the debt 
raise in the army ? Who owned the public lands ? What special mean- 
ing attached to the holding of the public lands by the whole country ? 
What was the ordinance of 1787 ? When trade was resumed with Eng- 
land, what followed ? What claim did England have on the United 
States ? What claim did Spain assert ? How did the separate States 
treat one another ? What was the Shays Rebellion ? What effect did all 
this have on Euroj^ean opinion ? What Western movement indicated a 
healthy condition ? When and where did the Constitutional Convention 
meet ? What was the process by which the Constitution was framed, 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS. 195 

discussed, and acted on ? What is The Federalist? What was the main 
difference between the Confederation and the Union ? 



SEARCH QUESTIONS. 

Give an analysis of the Ordinance of 1787. Describe the attempt to 
form the State of Franklin. What was the Kentucky experiment of the 
same sort ? Name some of the powers possessed by the Union under the 
Constitution which the old Confederation did not have. What States 
have been formed out of the Northwest Territory ? 



SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. 

COJIPOSITIONS : 

Continental money and what it would purchase during the Revolu- 
tion. 

An account of Shays's Rebellion. 

An imaginary letter from a soldier who had been with Washington all 
Ihrough the Revolutionary War, written from his home at the close of 
the war. 

Story of a boy who cared for the farm while his father was in the war. 

Washington's farewell to the army. 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS FOR REVIEW. 

Condition of the English Colonies at the Close of the French 
AND Indian War. 

1. Their number and position, 1. 

2. Character of the country occupied, 1. 

3. Derivation of the inhabitants, 1. 

4. Characteristics of the several colonies. 

a. Massachusetts. 

i. Its location and natural features, 2. 

ii. The occupations of its people, 2. 

iii. Domestic life in the country, 2. 

iv. Social equality and distinctions, 2. 

V. Centralization in towns, 2. 

vi. Political organization, 2. 

vii. Characteristics of town life, 2. 
6. The other New England colonies, 3. 



196 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 



II. 



c. 



/• 



New York, 
i. Distribution of population, 4. 

ii. The influence of the Dutch in language and habits, 4. 
iii. The patroon class, 4. 
iv. Political and social condition, 4. 
New Jersey, 5. 
Pennsylvania. 
i. Influence of the Friends, 5. 
ii. The German element, 5. 
iii. Philadelphia, its location and character, 5. 
iv. The character and career of Franklin, 5. 
Delaware, 5. 
g. The Southern colonies. 

i. Industrial character, 6. 
ii. Slavery as seen in different portions, 6. 
iii. Social distinctions, 6. 

5. The colonies considered as one country. 

a. Modes of intercommunication, 7. 

b. Newspapers, 7. 

c. Attempts at political union, 8. 

d. Difficulties in the way of union, 8. 

Causes of the Separation of the Colonies from Great Britain. 

1. The American training in self-government, 9. 

2. The changes going on in Parliament, 10. 

3. The English ignorance of America, 11. 

4. The laws of Great Britain affecting American industry, 11. 

6. The French and Indian War in its eft'ect on the relation between 

England and the colonies, 12. 

6. The attempted exercise of authority deemed in America uncon- 

stitutional. 

a. Writs of Assistance, 12. 

b. Taxation imposed by other than representatives of the people, 

13. 

c. The Stamp Act, 14. 

d. Quartering of troops, 18. 

e. The Boston Massacre, 18. 
/. The tax on tea, 19. 

7. The adoption of compulsory measures. 

a. The Boston Port Bill, 20. 

b. The withdrawal of the right of self-government. 

i. The restriction of legislative rights, 21. 
ii. The restriction of judicial rights, 21. 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS. 197 

8. The stand taken by the colonies. 

a. The habit of evading revenue laws, 11. 

b. The resistance to Writs of Assistance, 12. 

c. The resistance to the Stamp Act, 14-16. 

d. Legislative protests, 14. 

e. The removal of the regiments, 18. 
/. The destruction of the tea, 19. 

TIL The Thirteen United Colonies. 

1. The Stamp Act Congress, 15. 

2. The setting up of independent colonial government, 22. 

3. The First Continental Congress, 22. 

4. The Second Continental Congress. 

a. Assumption of general authority, 24. 

b. Appointment of Washington, 24. 

c. Declaration of Independence, 32, 33. 
(I The Conway Cabal, 46. 

5. The Confederation. 

a. Character of the articles, 35. 

b. Dealings with foreign countries, 36, 49. 

c. Dealings with the army, 58. 

d. Its debt, 58. 

e. Payment of the debt by sale of public lands, 59. 
/. Its weakness, 63. 

6. The formation of a closer union. 

a. The Convention to form a Constitution, 64. 

b. The adoption of the Constitution, 66. 

c. Difference between the Union and the Confederation, 66. 

IV. Formation of State Governments, 31. 

V. The War for Independence. 

1. British aggressions before there was open war. 

a. Lexington and Concord, 23. 

b. Burning of Falmouth, 26. 

c. Movement against the Southern colonies, 30. 

2. Colonial attacks upon the British power. 

a. Attack at Concord and on the road to Boston, 23. 

b. The siege of Boston, 23, 26, 27. 

c. Bunker Hill, 25. 

d. Ticonderoga and Crown Point, 27. 

e. Movement on Canada, 27. 

3. The formation of an army, 24. 

4. The adoption of a flag, 29, 35. 



198 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 

5. Operations about New York, 30, 39, 40, 41. 

6. The campaign in New Jersey, 41. 

7. The Northern campaign. 

a. The British plan, 42. 

b. Burgoyne's movements, 42. 

c. St. Leger and his defeat, 42. 

d. The battle of Bennington, 43. 

e. Defeat of Burgoyne, 44. 

8. Operations about Philadelphia. 

a. Howe's plan, 43. 

b. Brandywine and Germantown, 43. 

c. Valley Forge, 46. 

d. Discipline of the army, 46. 

9. The French alliance, 45, 47, 49. 

10. Second campaign in New Jersey, 47. 

11. The summer of 1778. 

a. Action before New York, 48. 
6. Action at Newport, 48. 
c. Naval movements, 48. 

12. British change of operations, 48. 

13. Operations on the frontier, 49. 

14. Operations in 1779. 

a. Wayne's exploit, 50. 

b. Privateering, 51. 

15. The Southern campaign of 1780, 52. 

16. Arnold's treason, 53. 

17. Final campaign against Cornwallis. 

a. Greene's operations, 54. 

b. Washington's maneuvers, 54. 

c. Surrender of Cornwallis, 55. 

VI. The Foreign Element in the War. 

1. On the British side. 

a. The Hessians, 38. 

b. The Indians, 42, 49. 

2. On the American side. 

a. Volunteer ofl&cers from Europe, 37. 

b. The French alliance, 45, 47, 49. 

VII. Civil and Diplomatic Affairs. 

1. Friends of America in England, 17, 38, 45. 

2. The loyalists, 34. 

3. Diplomatic relations with Europe. 



I 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS. 199 

a. Committee of secret correspondence, 36. 

b. Commissioner from tlie Confederation, 36. 
4. Overtures from England, 39. 

6. Financial operations. 

a. During the war, 49, 58. 

b. The debt created, 58. 

c. Mode of payment adopted, 59. 

6. The treaty of peace, 56. 

7. The claim against the country afterward. 
a. On the part of England, 60, 61. 

6. On the part of Spain, 61. 
The Men op America. 

1. Leaders in state. 

a. Benjamin Franklin, 5, 8, 17, 36, 56, 65. 

b. James Otis, 12. 

c. Patrick Henry, 14. 

d. Samuel Adams, 18, 19. 

e. Thomas Jefferson, 33. 
/. John Hancock, 33. 

g. John Adams, 24, 56, 63. 
h. John Jay, 65. 
i. Alexander Hamilton, 64. 65. 
j. James Madison, 64, 65. 

2. Leaders in battle. 

a. George Washington, 24, 26, 27, 29, 30, 37, 39, 41, 43,46-48, 

54, 55, 57, 58, 64. 

b. Joseph Warren, 25. 



c. 


Ethan Allen, 27. 


d. 


William Moultrie, 30. 


e. 


Israel Putnam, 25, 39. 


/• 


Nathan Hale, 40. 


9- 


John Stark, 43. 


h. 


Philip Schuyler, 42, 44. 


i. 


Horatio Gates, 44, 46, 52. 


J- 


John Sullivan, 39, 48. 


k. 


Nathanael Greene, 54. 


I. 


John Paul Jones, 51. 


m. 


Anthony Wayne, 50. 


n. 


George Rogers Clark, 49. 



3. The plain people, 23, 26, 46. 



200 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



King George III. came to the throne 

Writs of Assistance argued by James Otis 

Passage of the Stamp Act March 

Convention of the colonies October 

Repeal of the Stamp Act March 

Parliament passed an act establishing military garrisons 

The Boston Massacre March 5 

Removal of troops from Boston March 10, 11 

Destruction of tea in Boston Harbor Dec. 16, 

Boston Port Bill vi^ent into operation June 1 

First Continental Congress met September, 

Provincial Congress of Massachusetts met in Concord October, 

Fight at Lexington and Concord April 19 

Capture of Ticonderoga and Crown Point May 10, 12 

Second Continental Congress met May 10, 

Washington appointed commander-in-chief June 15 

Battle of Bunker Hill June 17 

Washington took command of the American army July 3 

Falmouth burned by the British Oct. 17, 

Montreal captured by Montgomery Nov. 12 

Attack upon Quebec Dec. 31, 

Union flag hoisted Jan. 1 

Siege of Boston raised March 17, 

South Carolina adopted a State constitution March, 

The colonies advised to set up State governments May 16 

Attack on Fort Sullivan June 28 

Declaration of Independence adopted July 4 

Battle of Long Island Aug. 27, 

Battle of White Plains Oct. 28, 

Fort Washington abandoned Nov. 16, 

Battle of Trenton Dec. 26 

Battle of Princeton Jan. 3 

Flag of stars and stripes adopted by Congress June 14 

Capture of Ticonderoga by Burgoyne July 6 

Howe's fleet left New York July 23 

Battle of Oriskany Aug. 6 

Battle of Bennington Aug. 16 

Battle of Brandy wine Sept. 11 

Battle of Gerraantown Oct. 4 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 201 

Surrender of Burgoyne Oct. 17, 1777 

Ratification of treaty with France May 4, 1778 

British left Philadelphia June 18, 1778 

Battle of Monmouth Court House June 28, 1778 

Arrival of French fleet July, 1778 

Savannah taken by the British , Dec. 29, 1778 

Capture of Stony Point by the Americans July 16, 1779 

Fight between the Bon Homme Richard and Serapis Sept. 23, 1779 

Capture of Charleston by the British May 12, 1780 

Battle of Camden Aug. 16, 1780 

Arnold's treason September, 1780 

Execution of Andr6 Oct. 2, 1780 

Battle of Cowpens Jan. 17, 1781 

Meeting of Congress under Articles of Confederation March 2, 1781 

Cornwallis's surrender at Yorktown Oct, 19, 1781 

Savannah evacuated by the British July 11, 1782 

Charleston evacuated by the British Dec. 14, 1782 

Treaty of peace between Great Britain and the United 

States signed at Paris Sept. 3, 1783 

New York evacuated by the British Nov. 25, 1783 

Shays's Rebellion 1786-1787 

Northwest Territory organized 1787 

Constitutional Convention met May 14, 1787 

Constitution ratified by Delaware, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey. . .1787 
Constitution ratified by eight other States 1788 



CHAPTER VII. 

THE NEW UNION. 

67. The Beginning of the New Government While the con- 
vention was forming the Constitution, the Congress of the 
Confederation was in session in New York. It continued 
to be the government of the country till the new government 
could go into operation. It fixed the seat of government tem- 
porarily in New York, and in that city the Congress of the 
United States met, March 4, 1789. It was a small body, con- 
sisting at first of twenty-two senators and fifty-nine repre- 
sentatives. 

Meanwhile the presidential electors met and voted for 
President. There could be no doubt who was the first man 
of the nation. George Washington was unanimously chosen 
President, and on April 30 he took the oath of office, in 
Federal Hall on Wall Street, New York. "He was dressed," 
an eyewitness tells us, "in deep brown, with metal buttons 
with an eagle on them, white stockings, a bag (that is, a bag 
wig), and sword." John Adams was chosen Vice President, 
and took his place as president of the Senate. 

68. The Cabinet Under the old Confederation there had 

been three executive departments, controlled by Congress: 
Foreign Affairs, War, and Finance. In the new Union these 
departments were made a part of the executive department, 
and the President appointed Thomas Jefferson at the head of 
the first, with the title of Secretary of State; he appointed 
Henry Knox, who was a general in the army, Secretary of 
War, and Alexander Hamilton Secretary of the Treasury. 
Edmund Randolph also was appointed to be Attorney 
General. 



THE NEW UNION, 203 

This was the beginning of what we now know as the Cabi- 
net, that is, the President's council; and it is a good illustra- 
tion of how political organization grows and is not made. 
The Constitution is silent about a Cabinet, and yet the Presi- 
dent's Cabinet to-day, with its eight members, is a very 
important part of the administration. 

Jefferson and Hamilton. — Two of the members of Washing- 
ton's Cabinet were men who had a marked influence on history. 
Thomas Jefferson, author of the Declaration of Independence, 
was a man of scholarly tastes and attainments. It was he 
who afterward organized the University of Virginia. He had 
been minister to France, and there had seen the beginning 
of the French Kevolution. He had a deep faith in the final 
judgment of the whole people, and combined in an extraor- 
dinary degree the qualities of an idealist and of a man of 
practical, plain sense. 

Alexander Hamilton was thirteen years younger than Jef- 
ferson. He was but twenty-two years old when he wrote a 
letter to the superintendent of finance which showed that he 
had already clear and strong opinions as to the proper mode 
of managing the finances of the government. Hamilton was 
opposed to Jefferson in many of his theories. He distrusted 
the people, and thought government should be in the hands 
of a few able and influential men.^ 

69. The Supreme Court. — In addition to the legislative de- 
partment, consisting of Congress, and of the executive depart- 
ment, consisting of the President, there was a third department 
of government organized, the judiciary. The Constitution had 
provided for a Supreme Court. Washington appointed John 
Jay Chief Justice, and Congress proceeded to extend the system 
of courts by which cases could first be tried in inferior courts, 
and only the most important questions carried up to the Supreme 
Court. By far the greatest power held by the Supreme Court 
is that of passing upon the constitutionality of acts of Congress 

1 As Secretary of the Treasury he organized the work so well that the 
office is to-day administered on the lines he laid down. 



204 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 



or of the States. The judges hold their office during good 
behavior ; they cannot be removed except by the long and slow 
process of impeachment, a mode of trial which requires the 
final consent of a majority of the House of Representatives to 

prosecute and of two 
thirds of the Senate to 
convict. 

It is largely because 
of this secure position 
of the judges, that the 
court has been com- 
posed of very eminent 
men. They have in- 
terpreted the law of 
the Constitution, and 
this again has had its 
effect in making the 
amendment of the Con- 
stitution infrequent. 
It is a very difficult 
matter to change the 
Constitution. It re- 
quires the assent of 
three fourths of the 
States. Wisely, the Constitution was originally so drawn that 
its articles were broad and comprehensive. The decisions of 
the Supreme Court from time to time have determined the 
exact application of the articles.^ 

1 Probably no single jurist did so much to determine the construction of the 
Constitution by decisions on the bench as John Marshall of Virginia. He was 
born in Fauquier County, September 24, 1755. He began the study of law 
when he was eighteen, but his studies were interrupted by the war. He 
served as captain at Brandywine and Germantown and was in camp at Valley 
Forge, where he made himself well known by the sound sense and good judg- 
ment with which he settled disputes between his brother officers; and both 
Washington and Hamilton came to esteem him highly. As soon as the war 
was over he took up the practice of the law, and rose rapidly to great dis- 
tinction. It was he and Madison who were most influential in securing the 




John Marshall. 



THE NEW UNION, 205 

70. The Bill of Rights — The only large body of amendments 
to the Constitution was made immediately after Congress first 
met. When the different State conventions discussed the Con- 
stitution, many fears were expressed lest it should make the 
general government too strong. Some thought the people in 
danger of losing their liberties, just as they had been in dan- 
ger when under the king. Congress, therefore, as soon as it 
got to work, submitted twelve amendments to the Constitution, 
drawn up by James Madison. Ten of these were ratified by 
the States, and are known as the Bill of Eights. They were 
intended to guard the freedom of the people against the perils 
which had beset them just before the war for independence 
(see page 490). 

71. The Payment of the Debt. — The most pressing business 
before Congress, however, was to get money to pay the debt 
of the Confederation. Hamilton at once saw in the payment 
of ^ the debt an opportunity to give strength to the United 
States in the eyes of foreign nations. He saw, also, that it 
gave an opportunity to bind the States together in a more 
perfect union. He proposed that the debt which the Con- 
federation owed to foreigners should be paid in full by the 
Union; that the Continental currency, which had become 
almost worthless, should be received by the government, and 
good money given in exchange. 

The first proposition was adopted at once, unanimously; 
the second was adopted after much debate. Hamilton pro- 
posed also that the debts incurred by the several States in be- 
half of the common welfare should be assumed by the Union. 
This proposition caused great debate; it was an important 
move, for if the Union were to pay the State debts, it would 
make friends at once of all those whom the States owed. 

Federalists and Anti-Federalists. — The men led by Hamilton, 
who desired a strong central government, were named Fed- 
adoption of the Federal Constitution in Virginia. He became Chief Justice of 
the United States in 1800, and died July 6, 1835. The Supreme Court first sat 
at Washington, Feb. 4, 1801, and the centennial was very generally observed. 



206 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 

eralists ; those opposed to them, at first for want of a better 
name, were called Anti-Federalists. These were more in num- 
ber, but they were broken up into groups that looked after 
the interest of this or that State. Upon the question of the 
assumption of the State debts they were united, and at first 
they defeated Hamilton's proposition. Hamilton was bent 
on carrying his point, and took advantage of a dispute about 
the location of the capital of the country. He persuaded two 
Virginia congressmen to change their votes and support his 
measure. In return he promised to use his influence to have 
the capital upon the banks of the Potomac River, instead of 
at some Northern point. This change of votes gave him the 
r rquisite majority. 

72. The United States Bank and National Revenue Ham- 
ilton now proposed a bank, of which the goveririiient should 
be a principal owner, and by means of which it could borrow 
money. There were then but three banks in the country. 
One was in Philadelphia, one in New York, and one in Bos- 
ton. They were all State institutions. In establish- 

1791 

* ing a bank under charter from the United States, 

Hamilton again met opposition from the Anti-Federalists; 
but he carried his point. 

The next step was to raise a revenue. This was done in two 
ways, — by imposing duties on goods imported into the country, 
and by laying a tax upon the manufacture of spirituous liquors. 
By the first, the United States declared its right to tax for- 
eigners; by the second, to tax its own citizens. A long step 
forward had been taken. The people in the colonies had 
resisted the English government when it had undertaken to 
tax them. The people of the States, though there was much 
grumbling, acknowledged the right of the United States to 
tax them. This was a government which they had themselves 
established. 

73. The First New State One step more was to be taken. 

The thirteen colonies had become thirteen States, and had now 
all accepted the Constitution of the United States. Each had 



THE NEW UNION. 207 

its own boundaries and its own government. But the bound- 
aries of the United States extended beyond the boundaries of 
the States. Out of this territory, stretching to the Mississippi, 
new States were to be formed. Yet the first new State was 
formed out of territory which was within the boundaries of 
the old States. It was formed by the United States in the 
exercise of the power which the nation had to determine 
membership in the Union. The territory now occupied by 
Vermont was claimed in part by New York, in part by New 
Hampshire. The people living there had fought bravely in 
the war, under the name of the Green Mountain Boys. 
They had set up an independent government during 
the war, and now desired to enter the Union. They settled 
their disputes with the neighboring States, and Vermont was 
admitted as the fourteenth State. ^ 

1 In 1777 Vermont declared itself an independent State, and for fourteen 
years held a singular position. It was in harmony with the rest of the country 
in opposing Great Britain, but it was quite as determined against any claim 
upon its territory which might be set up by New York or New Hampshire. 
The British authorities made an attempt to play upon this strong feeling by 
offering to secure its position as an independent province if it would keep 
its allegiance to the crown ; and the bargaining was not discontinued when 
the war closed. The State contributed very largely to the settlement of 
Western States, especially Michigan. It has in recent years received itself 
many newcomers from Canada. The State has sent a number of eminent 
men to Congress, and the length of service of two in particular has been no- 
ticeable. Senator George F. Edmunds represented the State continuously 
from 1866 to 1891, when he retired from public life. Justin Smith Morrill, 
who was born April 14, 1810, was elected to the House of Representatives 
and served steadily from December 3, 1855, to March 3, 1867, when he became 
Senator, and has served continuously ever since. It has been largely an agri- 
cultural and a grazing country, special attention being given to dairy products. 
The name is from the French Verts Monts, signifying Green Mountains. A 
capital storybook about revolutionary days is The Green Mountain Boys. 
Vermont, in the American Commonwealths series, is a good, compact account 
of the State. 



208 BSTABLISHMBNT OF THE UmOK, 



QUESTIONS. 

How long did the old Confederation last ? What was the seat of gov- 
ernment ? When and where was Washington inaugurated ? Who were 
the first members of the Cabinet? Give some account of Jefferson; of 
Hamilton. Into what three main divisions was the government divided ? 
What is the duty of the Supreme Court ? What was the Bill of Rights ? 
What was the first business of importance before Congress ? What pro- 
posals did the Secretary of the Treasury make ? What were the two 
political parties ? How did the site of the capital come to be chosen ? 
What banks were there in the country, and why did Hamilton propose a 
new one ? How was revenue raised ? What was the significance of the 
taxes now laid ? What new State was added to the Union ? What was 
its origin ? 

SEARCH QUESTIONS. 

How are the members of the Cabinet appointed and confirmed ? What 
determines the number of the representatives at any one time ? Is there 
any limit to the age at which a senator or representative may be chosen ? 
Is any American citizen eligible for the Presidency ? Who are citizens of 
the United States ? Explain the process of naturalization. 



SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. 

Compositions : 

An account of Hamilton's public speech when a student at King's 
College. 

The Green Mountain Boys. 

An account of Washington's inauguration. 

Debates : 

Besolved, That Hamilton w^as justified in the means he took to secure 
the assumption of the State debts. 

Mesolved, That a republic is always the best government. 



CHAPTER VIII. 



THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES. 



Gin (jin). The word is a short 
form of "engine." 

Presbyte'rian. Pres'by-ter is a 
Greek word, meaning "elder." 
The Presbyterians are so called 
because they hold that the Church 
should be governed by elders 
chosen by the churches, and not, 



as in the Episcopal Church, by 
bishops. ' ' Episcopal ' ' is from 
another Greek word, Ejns'-ko- 
p6s, meaning "overseer," or 
"bishop." 

Watauga (wa-ta'ga). 

Sevier (se-ver'). 



f 74. The first census of the United States was taken in 1790, 
and showed a population of a little less than four millons.^ 
The most populous State was Virginia. After that came 
Pennsylvania, then North Carolina, Massachusetts, New 
York, Maryland, South Carolina, and Connecticut. The four 
millions, of whom a little more than one fifth were slaves, 
occupied a belt of country which lay chiefly between the 
Alleghanies and the sea. The most thickly settled parts 
were along river courses and about commodious harbors. So 
close to the seacoast did most of the people live, that the 
center of population was twenty-three miles east of Baltimore. 
In all this Atlantic territory there were but five towns which 
had a population of more than ten thousand. They were 
Philadelphia, New York, Boston, Charleston, and Baltimore. 

75. The Chief Industries By far the greatest number of 

people dwelt on their farms, and lived by what they raised 
from the soil. They had no labor-saving machines, but on the 
banks of streams they had mills for grinding corn or sawing 
lumber. The farmer at the North plowed his field with a horse 
or ox plow, dropped his seed by hand, and used the hoe and 

1 The census of 1890 showed a population of over sixty-two millions. 
p 209 



210 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 

rake. When harvest time came, he cut his grass with a 
scythe, reaped his grain with a sickle, and threshed it with a 
flail. Sometimes, if he had a large crop, he used his horses 
to tread out the grain. 

The planter at the South raised tobacco in a field until he 
had drawn all the life out of the soil. Then he left the 
ruined land and planted another field. He raised rice in the 
marsh land. He found that cotton would grow well, but to 
get it ready for spinning was slow work. The Northern 
farmer also planted cotton; but he found it would not grow 
well, and so he gave up trying to raise it. 







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Western Movement of Center of Population.^ 

76. The Cotton Gin. — The cotton plant is a native of India. 
It has pods, which open when ripe and show a soft, downy 
substance containing seeds. The woolly fiber is separated 
from the seeds, and then is ready to be cleaned and carded 
for spinning and weaving. But the work of separating the 
fiber by hand is so slow that a laborer can prepare only a 
single pound a day. While, therefore, the planter was ship- 
ping large cargoes of tobacco and rice, he sent but little 
cotton. In 1792 only about a hundred and forty thousand 
pounds of cotton were exported from the entire South. 

1 If you imagine the surface of the United States a fiat board balanced on 
a pole, and the people distributed over it where they live, the center of gravity 
would correspond with the points marked. 



THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES. 



211 



Three years later, over six million pounds were exported. 
This sudden increase was due to the ingenuity of one man, 
Eli Whitney,^ who invented the cotton gin. It was not a very 
complicated machine, 
and it was adopted at 



once wherever cotton 
was raised. The plant- 
ers now planted more 
fields and imported more 
slaves. It was not long 
before cotton became 
the chief crop of the 
South. It was easily 
planted and picked by 
the slaves. The cotton 
gin got it ready to be 
made into bales, and 
then it was sent out of 
the country. 

77. The Manufacture 
of Cotton. — The people 
of India have always 
made cloth out of the 
cotton which they raise, 
of India, English merchants brought the cotton to England 

1 Whitney was born in Westboro, Massachusetts, December 8, 1765. During 
the war for independence he was engaged in making nails, which in those 
days were wrought singly by hand. He worked his way through Yale Col- 
lege, graduating in 1792, and then went to Georgia to teach. The widow of 
General Greene gave him a home, and he was so clever in contrivances in her 
house, that when some friends were complaining that there was no profit in 
raising the best cotton, owing to the great difficulty of separating the fiber 
from the seed, she advised them to apply to Whitney. He had never seen any 
cotton seed or raw cotton and had to make the tools and to draw the wire 
with which he experimented, but after several months' labor he produced the 
gin. Afterward he returned to the North and engaged in the manufacture of 
firearms near New Haven. His buildings became the models upon which the 
National armories were afterward built. He died at New Haven, January 8, 
1825. 




Eli Whitney. 
When England began to get control 



212 ESTABLISHMENT, OF THE UNION. 

and set Englishmen at work spinning and weaving it. At first 
they worked by hand, as the "people of India did; but soon 
they invented machines and built factories. The application 
of steam to machinery increased enormously the manufactur- 
ing interest in England. 

In the Southern States of the Union the slaves were not 
trained to work which required skill. Thus, while a little 
cotton was spun or woven by hand for coarser clothes used 
on the plantations, the greater part was sent to England to 
be made up into cloth. Then English merchants sold this 
cloth in the United States. In the Northern States almost 
everybody worked with his hands. The men on the farms 
made and mended tools and built buildings. The women 
spun and wove chiefly flax and wool. 

So it came about that when New England ships sailed to 
Southern ports, they brought some of the cotton back to the 
North. The English manufacturers wished to retain the busi- 
ness in their own hands. But it was not long before Ameri- 
cans were making machinery like that in use in England. 
The first machinery capable of spinning cotton yarn, equal to 
that made in England, was set up by Samuel Slater, at Paw- 
tucket, Khode Island, in 1790. 

78. Other Manufacturing. — Besides the crops which the 
farms and plantations yielded, there were forests, which gave 
wood for building and for fuel. Beneath the ground was a 
rich store of iron, lead, coal, and other minerals. Very little 
was yet known of all this hidden wealth, and there were very 
few contrivances for turning the ore into manufactured arti- 
cles. The laws of Great Britain had required the people of 
the colonies to send their iron ore to England. The war put 
an end to this, and people set up iron works in the districts 
in which the ore was found. These works began to multiply, 
but the best articles still came from England. 

79. Education and Religion. — The people were still poor, but 
they began to plan for schools for their children, and even for 
new colleges. In 1789 Massachusetts made attendance upon 



I 



THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES. 213 

school compulsory, and before the end of the century several 
academies had been founded in that and other New England 
States. In 1795, Governor Clinton, of New York, recom- 
mended the legislature to establish common schools through- 
out the State. It was many years, however, before there was 
anything like a public-school system throughout the country. 
The care of the public schools is one of the great duties of 
the separate States. The general government has little to do 
in this respect. 

There was very little paper made in the country, and books 
were dear. Schoolbooks were few in number; but a young 
schoolmaster, Noah Webster, had just made a speller, 
and was at work upon a dictionary. There were only 
three or four public libraries in the entire country, and but 
forty-three newspapers, in 1783. 

There were churches in all the older communities. Before 
the war for independence some of these had been partly sup- 
ported by the government. But when the State governments 
were formed, and when the Federal Constitution was adopted, 
taxes for the support of ministers were abolished in most of 
the States. It was provided in the Constitution that " no re- 
ligious tests should ever be required as a qualification for any 
office or public trust under the United States." The first 
amendment to the Constitution also had the words : " Congress 
shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or 
prohibiting the free exercise thereof." ^ 

The churches were supported by the free-will offerings of 
the people who attended them. But the people believed so 
firmly that religion and education are necessary to freedom, 
that they laid no taxes upon property devoted to religious and 
charitable purposes, nor upon property used for schools and 
colleges. This separation of the churches from the State was 
one of the greatest points of difference between the New 

1 The State of Virginia was the first to abolish religious tests. Madison 
was most influential in bringing this about, as also in extending the principle 
to the Federal Constitution. 



214 ESTABLISHMENT QF THE UNION. 

World and the Old. No sooner was the new nation fairly 
established, than religious societies began to grow, as plants 
grow to which are given free air, sunshine, shower, and favor- 
able soil. 

80. The Western Movement. — The people of the United 
States living in the old thirteen States were largely of English 
origin, and they Were influenced by English laws and manners 
and customs. But they had been practiced in governing them- 
selves ; they had turned colonies into States, and now it was 
to be seen how they would proceed to make new States in the 
great Western world beyond the mountains which had come 
into their possession. 

There were three main lines of movement to the West: one 
followed the valley of the Mohawk to the Great Lakes ; that 
was the road taken by people in the New England States and 
New York. A second followed the river courses of Pennsyl- 
vania, passed through gaps in the Alleghanies, and came upon 
the eastern branches of the Ohio River. The third crossed 
the Blue Eidge Mountains and struck the Cumberland, Ten- 
nessee, and other rivers flowing into the Ohio, and thence to 
the great Mississippi. The first of these routes was the last 
to be developed, because Great Britain retained control of the 
Great Lakes till 1795. 

The Scotch-Irish and Other Frontiersmen. — In order to trace 
the lines by which the first States were formed out of the 
Western country, we need to go back to a date before the war 
for independence. At first those who crossed the mountains 
were traders, hunters, and trappers; but as the lands to the 
east of the mountains were taken up, families would move 
boldly into the vacant lands beyond. The people who thus 
pushed the frontier westward were mainly those who had 
already been accustomed to live remote from cities and towns. 
They were a hardy, self-reliant, backwoods people. 

A very important race element was that of the Scotch-Irish, 
as they were called, descendants of the Presbyterians of the 
north of Ireland and south of Scotland, whose relij^ious belief 



THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES. 215 

had made them good fighters and sturdy, independent men. 
They cleared the forest with the ax and protected themselves 
against wild beasts and savage Indians with the rifle, A log 
hut would be built by a family and a clearing made. Thus 
on the edge of the wilderness a new home would be formed. 
A group of families would build a stockade fort, and here they 
would meet for mutual safety when there was an Indian war. 

As these people pushed the frontier westward and moved 
farther away from the Eastern settlements, they came more 
into the midst of the Indians, and in 1763 the English govern- 
ment even went so far as to forbid the settlement of lands 
west of the sources of the rivers that flowed into the Atlantic. 
The policy of England was to keep settlers near the Atlantic 
coast, where English goods would be sold to them; and to 
reserve the regions beyond the mountains for the fur trade. 

But the backwoodsmen paid little heed to such orders, and 
in 1768, by the treaty of Fort Stanwix, the Six Nations gave 
up to the English all the title they might possess to lands 
south of a line running west from Fort Stanwix to the Alle- 
gheny, and along the Ohio, and as far south as the Tennessee. 
This treaty gave an impulse to the westward movement. The 
people occupying the territory, except some lawless adven- 
turers, believed in law and order, and when they found them- 
selves widely separated from the State in which they had 
lived, they formed associations and agreed to abide by the 
laws they should make. 

81. The Beginning of Kentucky. — The hunters who had first 
penetrated the wilderness often served as guides to parties 
moving over the mountains. One of these early pioneers was 
Daniel Boone, of North Carolina. He went on long hunting 
excursions, and was so in love with the banks of the Ken- 
tucky Eiver that shortly after the treaty he moved his family 
to the new' land and persuaded his neighbors to follow. He 
made a settlement, which took the name of Boonesborough.^ 

1 He was captured once by the Indians, when on a raid against them, and 
learning that they were to attack Boonesborough, he made his escape. " On 



216 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 



Others followed from Virginia and North Carolina. The 
country was that claimed by Virginia, and upon a petition 
from many of the inhabitants Virginia erected it into a county, 
with the boundaries of the present State of Kentucky. In 

1792 the county was 
made a State, the first 
to be admitted into the 
Union from the coun- 
try beyond the Alle- 
ghanies.^ 

82. The Southwestern 
Territory. — At the same 
time that Boone went 
to Kentucky, a com- 
pany of settlers pushed 
down the valley of the 
Watauga River. They 
found themselves in a 
country claimed by 
North Carolina, and 
their settlement was re- 
enforced soon by a party 
headed by John Rob- 
ertson, which crossed 
A little later came John 
Sevier, a frontier trader with the Indians, and these two men, 

the 16th of June," he says, "before sunrise, I departed in the most secret 
manner, and arrived at Boonesborough on the 20th, after a journey of one 
hundred and sixty miles, during which I had but one meal." 

1 Kentucky appears to be an Indian term for " hunting ground." In recent 
days a considerable portion, with Lexington for its center, has been spoken of 
as the "blue-grass region," from the peculiar tint of its rich herbage. Our 
fathers often spoke of it as the "dark and bloody ground," because of the 
savage warfare that went on there in the early days of the State. After the 
War of 1812, the commercial growth of the State was very rapid ; it became 
the great source of supplies for the country lying to the west and northwest. 
Shaler's Kentucky, in the American Commonwealths series, pays much atten- 
tion to the natural resources of the State and the character of its population. 




Daniel Boone. 



the mountains from North Carolina. 



I 



THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES. 217 

Eobertson and Sevier, became the leaders of the community. 
Under their direction, in 1772, the people formed themselves 
into the Watauga Association and elected what was in effect a 
court, with the laws of Virginia for the standard. 

For six years thus these American-born people governed 
themselves. Then North Carolina formed Washington County 
out of all the country included in the present State of Tennes- 
see, and the Watauga Association came to an end ; but there 
was no break in the reign of law. After the States had ceded 
their Western land to the general government. Congress erected 
this portion into the Southwestern Territory and appointed a 
governor. 

83. Organization of Tennessee. — The people who had their 
homes in this new country were used to governing them- 
selves. They were uneasy until they could have a State on 
an equality with all the other States. So, upon the call of 
the governor of the territory, fifty-five delegates from the 
eleven counties met at Knoxville. They were each to be 
allowed two dollars and a half a day for their services. 
They discovered that no provision had been made for a sec- 
retary, doorkeeper, and printer. So the convention passed 
the following preamble and resolution: "Whereas economy 
is an amiable trait in any government, and, in fixing the 
salaries of the officers thereof, the resources and situation 
of the country should be attended to : therefore one dollar and 
a half per diem is enough for us, and no more will a man of 
us take ; and the rest shall go to the payment of the secretary, 
printer, doorkeeper, and other officers." The delegates were 
rude farmers and backwoodsmen, but they were also 
men who loved law and true liberty. Thus the great 
State of Tennessee was born, not with pomp and parade, but 
with the real dignity which belongs to people who respect one 
another.^ 

1 Tennessee is, in the Indian tongue, '* the river of the great bend." See, 
for a detailed narrative of the formation and development of the State, 
Phelan's History of Tennessee. 



218 ESTABLISHMENT OF. THE UNION. 

84. Pioneer Life. — These Western pioneers carried with 
them laws, government, and courts ; but life was very different 
with them from what it was in the older settlements. When 
they crossed the mountains, the men and boys and strong 
women went afoot; the children and household goods were 
carried on pack horses, for there were as yet no roads for 
wagons. Though the "wilderness road" opened by Boone 
was at first the route followed, very soon the great body of 
emigrants went to the Monongahela and there took boats and 
floated down the Ohio to Youngstown, and thence journeyed 
inland. 

The cabins of the poorer Avere made of unhewn logs and 
held but a single room; and in the river bank settlements 
were often constructed of the planks which had formed the 
boats in which they had floated down the Ohio. The better 
cabins had their logs hewn; besides the large common room 
in which they gathered for meals, there was a small bedroom 
and a kitchen ; in the unfinished loft above, reached by ladder, 
the boys of the family slept. The beds were covered with 
bear skins and the hides of deer they had shot. Their tables 
and stools were often nothing but slabs of wood set on legs. 

Here in the wilderness, the pioneers had to depend on them- 
selves. The men and boys made a clearing on the edge of the 
forest and cultivated the land. They had to bring the plows 
from the older settlements, but some of the simpler implements 
they made themselves. They raised hogs and sheep, and 
hunted game. A hand mill and a hominy block were in every 
cabin. The women spun the flax that was raised, and wove 
linsey-wolsey cloth from flax and wool; the hides of deer 
were tanned and used for leggings and boots. What they 
needed and could not supply themselves was brought from 
some distant town once a year by trains of pack horses, which 
carried in exchange the skins they had tanned; or goods came 
in the boats that floated down the river. 

The social life of the early English settlers on the coast was 
repeated here in the backwoods, but in a more hearty and 



» 



THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES. 219 

boisterous way. They had their house raisings and house 
warmings, quiltings and corn huskings; and these meetings 
were occasions for athletic sports, and trials of strength of 
all kinds among the young men. There was often a very rough 
side to their games, for the community was made up of men 
who lived in the open air and fought wild beasts and Indians. 

There were few schools, and only the simplest things were 
taught. Meeting houses also were rare, but the people were a 
religious people and read their Bibles with great earnestness. 
The preachers who visited them went from settlement to set- 
tlement by turn, and their coming was a great event. 

One result of this common life of the pioneers was seen in 
the social equality of the people. Where all worked and 
helped each other, it was not possible to keep up distinction 
of rank; whereas, in the seaboard settlements, there still sur- 
vived signs of the earlier days wiien the distinctions of society 
in Europe had passed over into the colonies. 

QUESTIONS. 

What was the population of the United States in 1790 ? What was it 
a hundred years later ? What was the order in population of the eight 
most populous ? Which were the largest towns ? What was the chief 
occupation of the people ? What primitive modes of cultivation were 
used ? Describe the raising of cotton, and state what gave a great 
impulse to its cultivation. What effect did the invention of the cotton 
gin have on Southern life ? Describe the series of steps by which the 
South came to raise cotton and the North to manufacture cotton cloth. 
What other manufactures were there ? When did the school system 
begin to come into use ? Who was Noah Webster ? What did the Con- 
stitution have to do with religious societies ? What has been the effect of 
voluntary support of churches ? Name the three main lines of movement 
to the West. Mention one of the race elements in the Western move- 
ment. What were some of its characteristics ? What influence did the 
Indians have on the early Western settlements ? Narrate the beginning 
of Kentucky. How was the Southwestern Territory formed, and who 
were prominent men in it ? Narrate the incident connected with the 
organization of the State of Tennessee. How did the early pioneers live ? 
How were they clothed and fed ? What was the social life of the settlers, 
and to what did it lead ? 



220 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 



SEARCH QUESTIONS. 

How is the census taken ? When was steam applied to machinery in 
England, and by whom ? Name the chief libraries in the country in 1783. 
What led to the planting of the Scotch in Ireland ? Were there Presby- 
terians in New England, and if so, where ? 



SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. 

Compositions : 

The tracing of a piece of cotton cloth from the first planting of the 
seed. 

An account of a newspaper of the last century. 

A comparison of a Western pioneer with a colonist who came over in 
the Mayflower. 

Debate : 

Hesolved, That it is better for government that members of the legis- 
lature should serve without pay. 



CHAPTER IX. 



THE UNITED STATES AND EUROPE. 



Bastile (bas-tel'). 
Genet (zhe-na'). 

Neutral. In time of war, belon^ 
ing to neither party to the war. 
Wabash (wa'bash). 



Maneuver (nia-noo'ver). The 
French word thus made English is 
inanoRuvre. An adroit movement. 

Alien (al'yen). Belonging to an- 
other country. 



85. America and the Old World The New World was 

still a part of the Old. It was indeed no longer a politi- 
cal part of it; the people living on the western shore of the 
Atlantic had declared and won their independence as a nation, 
but they were still very dependent on Europe. Many lived 
by the commerce which they carried on with European ports. 
All were deeply interested in what was going on in the Old 
World. 

On the other hand, the United States was an object of 
great interest to Europe. The alliance with France brought 
Frenchmen to America, and increased the communication 
between the two countries. The French officers and soldiers 
who had helped the new nation to acquire its independence 
returned home, and everywhere spread accounts of the repub- 
lic. The Federal Constitution and the constitutions of the 
States were translated into French. A great number of 
books, pamphlets, and papers about America were scattered 
through the country.^ 

The French Revolution and American Parties. — It is not 
strange that when a revolution in France broke forth, there 

1 See, for a full treatment of this interesting subject, Lewis Rosenthal's 
America and France : the Influence of the United States on France in the 
Xyillth Century. 

221 



222 ESTABLISHMENT OB THE UNION. 

should have been a strong sympathy between France and the 
United States. The French Republic was formed shortly 
after the establishment of the Union. There was an 
enthusiasm among the French people for America. 
There was an eagerness in America for the success of the 
French people. Many of the officers who had been in Amer- 
ica took part in the French Eevolution. Lafayette was Vice 
President of the National Assembly; and when the people 
destroyed the Bastile, the old prison house of Paris, he sent 
its key to Washington. It was a sign that France, too, was 
free. 

Clubs sprang up all over the United States in imitation 
of French republican clubs. French fashions of speech and 
dress were imitated. The American newspapers printed every- 
thing that could be learned about the progress of the French 
Eevolution. Celebrations of victories by the French people' 
were held, at which speeches were made by Americans who 
were in sympathy with France. The Federalist party, headed 
by Hamilton, looked with distrust on the Revolution in France; 
the Anti-Federalist, or Republican party, as it now began to 
be called, headed by Jefferson, was enthusiastic in its support 
of the revolutionary party ; and thus these two American par- 
ties divided on European politics. 

86. The War between France and England. — But it soon 
ceased to be a question of political sentiment. Early in 1793 
the French Republic declared war against England, and it 
became necessary for the United States to take some action. 
By the treaty she had made with France when engaged in the 
war for independence, the United States was to defend the 
French West Indies against Great Britain. Jefferson main- 
tained that this treaty was still binding; Hamilton, that the 
change of government in France had annulled the treaty; but 
both agreed that it was all important for the United States to 
keep out of this European war. Washington accordingly 
issued a proclamation of neutrality. 

It was an important act, the first in a series of acts by Avhich 



THE UNITED STATES AND EUROPE. 223 

the United States lias kept free from entanglement with Euro- 
pean affairs. But this was not what France wanted. That 
country wanted to draw the American people into the war, and 
sent out an agent, named Genet, who began issuing commis- 
sions to privateers and told them to bring their prizes into 
ports of the United States. The French consuls in those 
ports were to act as judges. Genet finding himself at every 
step opposed by the United States government, undertook to 
ignore its authority and appealed to the people; but Wash- 
ington compelled France to recall her imprudent agent. 

87. Jay's Treaty The rash performance of Genet served 

to cool the enthusiasm for France and to strengthen the hands 
of the English party, but England unfortunately followed a 
course which incensed the Americans and almost brought on 
a renewal of war. She claimed the right to lay hold of any 
provision for the enemy which she might find in a neutral 
vessel; to seize the produce of French colonies wherever found ; 
and to board any vessel, make search for seamen of British 
birth, and carry them off for her own service. 

The humiliation of having vessels searched, and the in- 
justice often done by carrying off American seamen on the plea 
that they were British, led Congress into taking steps of retali- 
ation. Non-intercourse with England was proposed, and the 
country was hurrying into war when Washington made a final 
attempt to bring about a better understanding betAveen the 
two countries. He appointed Chief Justice John Jay to be 
Envoy Extraordinary ^ to England. Jay was instructed to form 
a treaty, in which the points in dispute between the 
two countries should be settled. He carried out his 
instructions, and returned to the United States, where the 
treaty was ratified by the Senate, 

It was not an entirely satisfactory treaty. It provided for 
the removal of the English garrisons which still held the posts 
on the lakes; it made rules for the regulation of the com- 

1 The title given to an ambassador sent by one nation to another on a 
special mission. 



224 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 

merce of the two countries ; but it left to England the right 
to search American vessels for British seamen, and it put 
difficulties in the way of trade with the West Indies. The 
terms of the treaty became known after the Senate ratified it. 
An outcry was at once raised against it. The newspapers 
were filled with discussions. Hamilton and others defended 
it by speeches and letters. Washington deliberated long, but 
finally signed it. His act was followed by the bitterest attacks 
upon his patriotism and character. He signed the treaty be- 
cause, imperfect though it was, it was better than none. It 
was the first substantial recognition which England had made 
of the sovereign rights of the United States. The result 
proved his wisdom; war was averted, commerce revived, and 
many who had denounced the treaty became its friends. 

88. The Western Posts and the Indians. — The removal of the 
English garrisons from the Western posts was a great point > 
gained. So long as they remained, the Indians were con- 
stantly incited by them to annoy the settlers on the frontier. 
Companies of American soldiers were sent out to fight the 
Indians; but they failed, and the Indians vexed the settle- 
ments still more. The most serious defeat was that suffered 
by St. Clair near the head waters of the Wabash, in 1791.^ At 
last the chief command in the West was given to General 
Anthony Wayne. Washington, who was well acquainted with 
Indian warfare, gave him minute instructions. Wayne took 
the field in 1793, built forts as he advanced, and by vigorous 
assaults and quick movements gained complete victory over 
the Indians. They signed a treaty of peace in 1795, in which 
they abandoned their claim to a large territory. 

89. The Whisky Rebellion In the meantime an affair 

occurred within the borders of the old thirteen colonies which 
was of importance as demonstrating that the new government, 

1 It was on the occasion of hearing the news of St. Clair's defeat, that 
Washington burst into a torrent of indignant speech, one of the few times 
when this man of self-control gave way. See the account in my George 
Washington. 



THE UNITED STATES AND EUROPE. 



225 



1794. 



besides being able to settle affairs with foreign countries and 
with Indians, could quell internal disorders. Congress had 
laid a tax on distilled spirits. Now the people in 
western Pennsylvania carried their grain to market 
in the shape of whisky, and they objected to the taxing of 
whisky, when the people east of the mountains were not 
taxed on the grain they carried to market in the form of 
grain. An insurrection arose, and the governor of the State 




Mt. Vernon. 

was unable to suppress it; whereupon Washington called for 
troops from the neighboring States, and the force of the Fed- 
eral government put down the insurrection. People began 
to have more confidence in the Union when it was found 
strong enough to keep the peace in an unruly State. 

90. Washington's Farewell Address. — After serving two 
terms as President, George Washington returned to private 
life at Mt. Vernon. He had been for more than twenty 
years the foremost man of the country in the eyes of the 
world. When he left the Presidency, he made a Farewell 



226 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 

Address to the People of the United States. In that address, 

which is weighty with wisdom, he urged the people to prize 

the Union which they had formed. He bade them remember 

that each part of the country had free intercourse 

1 7Qfi ' ^^^^^ ^^ *^^ other parts, and that each could help the 
others. He begged them to suffer no parties to rise 
within the Union which should weaken its strength, and he 
called on them to glory in the name of American. He re- 
minded them that Europe had interests with which America 
had little concern. "Extend your business relations with 
Europe," he said in effect, "but do not be dragged into her 
politics. Do not suffer yourselves to have passionate attach- 
ments for other nations. Be strong in yourselves, and you 
will be independent of the Old World." ^ 

91. Administration of John Adams. — This note of alarm was 
needed at the time, for the two political parties in the country 
were still divided largely on European lines. John Adams, 
who was chosen as Washington's successor, was a Federalist; 
Thomas Jefferson, who was chosen Vice President, was the 
leader of the Democratic-Republican party, as the Anti-Fed- 
eralists were now called. Jay's treaty, which prevented war 
with England, almost caused war with France. That country 
sent the American minister out of the land. French cruisers 
seized in a few months as many as a thousand American ves- 
sels. They pretended that the captains were giving aid to the 
enemy, and they condemned the vessels to be sold. 

Envoys to France The President was anxious to avoid war 

with France, and he took somewhat the same course which 
Washington had followed with England. He sent a special 
commission of three envoys to France, — John Marshall, 
afterward Chief Justice, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, and 
Elbridge Gerry. But France was then in the hands of wild 
revolutionists, who treated the envoys with the greatest in- 
dignity. They employed secret agents to deal with the 
envoys. These agents told the envoys that they must pay a 

1 The text of the Farewell Address is printed in No. 4 of Old South Leaflets. 



THE UNITED STATES AND EUROPE. 227 

sum of money to the government before they could be received 
at all. After that the United States must lend money to 
France to enable her to carry on her war. When this was 
done, France would repeal some of the acts which injured 
American commerce. 

The envoys indignantly refused to accept such terms, and 
were ordered to leave France. The United States govern- 
ment at once published the report of the envoys, including the 
correspondence which they had with the agents. The names 
of the agents were concealed under the letters X, Y, Z. So 
great was the indignation in America that Congress made 
ready for a war with France. Washington was called from 
Mt. Vernon, and placed at the head of a new army. The 
navy was strengthened, privateers were fitted out, and a 
French privateer and frigate were captured in the West 
Indies. 

92. The Alien and Sedition Acts. — Pinckney had declared, 
"Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute"; the 
words were taken up as a popular cry. The country was on 
the side of the government. The Federalists, who had been 
losing ground, were now stronger than before. They 
attempted to strengthen the government still further 

by passing in Congress two acts called the Alien and Sedition 
Laws. The Alien laws gave the President power to send out 
of the country any alien whom he might regard as dangerous 
to the peace of the country. The Sedition laws gave him 
power to fine and imprison any who might be found guilty of 
conspiring against the government or maliciously attacking 
it. These laws placed a power in the hands of the govern- 
ment which alarmed the Democratic-Eepublicans. They said 
the laws were aimed against them. They opposed the action, 
not as friends of France, but as Americans. They believed 
that less power should be given to the Federal government 
and more to the separate States. 

93. The Beginning of the State-rights Doctrine — This belief, 
which so nearly prevented the adoption of the Constitution, 



228 ESTABLISHMENT C^F THE UNION. 

had never disappeared. It showed itself on every occasion, 
and helped to shape the course of the Democratic-Republican 
party. This party came to be called the State-rights party, 
because it was jealous lest the States should not have all their 
rights under the Constitution. Thus, when the Federalists 
forced through Congress the Alien and Sedition Laws, the 
Democratic-Kepublicans passed certain resolutions in the 
State legislatures of Virginia and Kentucky. These resolu- 
tions^ declared that the action of the Federal government 
was unconstitutional, and that it was the duty of the States 

to combine and refuse obedience. The resolutions 
1798 

maintained the theory that the Constitution was a 

compact between the States, and that the States together were 

the judges to decide if Federal laws were constitutional. 

94. Napoleon's Friendship. — Meanwhile, though there was 
open hostility between the United States and France, war was 
not actually declared. The President sent a new embassy to 

France. Napoleon Bonaparte, then at the head of 
affairs in that country, was wiser than those who had 
driven away the former envoys. In his plans the conquest 
of England had a large place. He saw the importance of a 
friendship with the American republic, and welcomed the 
embassy. He ordered the French cruisers to cease vexing 
American vessels. A treaty followed, which was received 
with great favor by both countries. 

95. The Death of Washington. — George Washington died on 
the 14th of December, 1799, " first in war, first in peace, and 
first in the hearts of his fellow citizens."^ The people of 
the land mourned for him whom they had learned to call the 
Father of his Country. In the year following, the seat of 
government was moved to the site which he had chosen on the 
banks of the Potomac. The city there laid out received the 
name of Washington. 

1 Madison drew the Virginia resolutions, and Jefferson the Kentucky. 

2 These were the words of a resolution of Congress. 



THE UNITED STATES AND EUROPE. 229 



QUESTIONS. 

In what respect was the New World still a part of the Old ? How did 
the American Revolution affect France ? How did the French Revolution 
affect America ? What effect did the war between France and England 
have on America ? Who was Genet and what did he undertake to do ? 
How did England estrange American feeling ? What course did Wash- 
ington pursue ? How was Jay's treaty regarded ? What was the state of 
things in the West ? What was the end of the Indian War ? Narrate the 
events of the Whisky Rebellion. What was the substance of Washing- 
ton's Farewell Address ? How many years had Washington been Presi- 
dent ? Who succeeded him in the administration ? What was the effect 
of Jay's treaty on relations with France? How did President Adams 
meet the difficulties which arose? Who were the envoys to France? 
What treatment did they receive ? What policy did the Federalists pur- 
sue ? How did the opposition meet the Alien and Sedition Laws ? What 
part did Napoleon Bonaparte now play ? What was the date of Washing- 
ton's death ? How is his name perpetuated ? 

SEARCH QUESTIONS. 

What was the origin of the French Revolution ? Who laid out the city 
of Washington ? What is the history of the Capitol ? What does the 
Constitution say respecting treaties? What is meant by "executive 
session"? Who is an alien? Distinguish between an ambassador, a 
minister, and a consul. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. 

Compositions : 

The White House. 

I A visit to Mt. Vernon. 
Napoleon Bonaparte. 
Account of a visit to Washington. 
Debate : 
Resolved, That Jay's treaty should not have been ratified. 
I 



CHAPTER X. 

THE EXPANSION OF THE UNION. 
Ceded (sed'gd). Gave up. 

96. Jefferson's Administration and the Occupation of Ohio 

The first President to be inaugurated at Washington was 
Thomas Jefferson. He was elected to succeed John Adams, 
and held office for two terms, 1801-1809; for the power of the 
Federalists had waned, and the party which stood for more 
democratic theories of government was behind the adminis- 
tration. There was peace for a while in Europe, and the 
United States was less distracted from attention to its own 
interior develo^Dment. When the various States ceded their 
Western lands to the Union, Connecticut reserved a strip of 
land still popularly known as the Western Reserve, running 
along the shore of Lake Erie. Not till 1800 was that land 
given up to the Union. Meanwhile, settlers from Connecticut 
had been occupying it, and Cleveland was staked out in 1795. 
But it took three months for emigrants to make their way 
thither from Connecticut. The New England people had not 
at this time gone in large numbers to the Northwest except 
to the Western Reserve ; they had stopped in the fertile lands 
of the Mohawk Valley. The stream of emigration flowed 
rather from western Pennsylvania and the upper tier of 
Southern States. The frontiersmen were pushing up into the 
Northwestern Territory, and in 1800 this was cut into two 
sections, the territories of Ohio and Indiana. In 1803 the 
territory of Ohio became the State of Ohio.^ The founders of 
Ohio encouraged settlers by laying no taxes for four years 

1 The movement into the fertile fields of Ohio began in 1787-1788, when a 
company of forty-seven persons, under General Rufus Putnam, came from 

230 






THE EXPANSION OF THE UNION. 



231 



upon land bought of the United States. The United States 
in return gave to the State one section in each township for 
the support of common schools.^ Thus it was made easy for 

Massachusetts to Pittsburg, where they built a boat which they named the 
Mayflower, and after five days' passage down the river, settled upon the 
banks where the Muskingum joins the Ohio, and named the place Marietta. 
Manasseh Cutler, who had much to do with securing the ordinance of 1787, 
wrote a description of the country at that time, which is printed in Old Soiith 
Leaflets, No. 40. About the same time, John Cleves Symmes obtained a grant 
of one million acres, bounded south by the Ohio and west by the Miami ; and 
two settlements were made, at South Bend, in what was afterwards Indiana, 
and Cincinnati. It is interesting to see how the name Sherman has been 
identified with the history of the State. In 1805, the proprietors of that part 
of the Western Reserve known as the Firelands put their property into the 
hands of Taylor Sherman. His son, Charles R. Sherman, was one of the 
judges of the Supreme Court of the State, and he, again, had two sons, General 
William Tecumseh Sherman, and Senator, afterwards Secretary, John Sher- 
man. The State has given more Presidents to the nation than any beside 
Virginia. It took its name from the river, so called by the Iroquois, meaning 
" Beautiful River." For a history, see Ohio in Ame?-ican Commonioealths. 

1 The township in the West differs widely from the town in New England. 
It is the result of the simple but comprehensive system of surveys instituted 
by Congress in 1785. According to this system the government surveyors 
have marked out north and south lines called principal meridians. One of 
these is the dividing line between Ohio and Indiana. On each side of the 
principal meridians are range lines six miles apart. These all run north and 
south. Then a base line is drawn crossing these meridians on a true parallel 
of latitude. On each side of the base line at distances of six miles are drawn 
township lines. Thus the whole is marked off into townships six miles square, 
except in the Western Reserve, where it is five, and each township again is 
divided into thirty-six square sections, each one mile square, or 640 acres. 
Number sixteen of these sections in each township, which is the central one, 
is the one which has been reserved for the school fund. Here the schoolhouse 
has been placed, and has become the center of town life in many ways. The 
following diagram will make the arrangement of numbering clear : 



6 5 


4 


3 2 


1 


7 8 9 10 


11 


12 


IS 17 


16 15 U 1 13 1 


19 20 21 


22 23 


24 


80 


29 28 


27 26 


25 


31 


32 


33 


34 35 


36 



232 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 

men to settle there, and they were encouraged to provide 
education for their children. 

97. Pinckney's Treaty — By the terms of the Jay treaty, 
both England and the United States were to have free use of 
the Mississippi, but neither country controlled the mouth of 
that river. The Spanish had a fortified post at New Orleans, 
and they laid a heavy tax upon all merchandise passing that 
way. At the same time that Jay was negotiating his treaty 
with England, Thomas Pinckney was making a treaty with 
Spain. He secured the southern boundary claimed by the 
United States and what was known as the right of deposit 
at New Orleans, or elsewhere, by which it was made possible 
to ship goods to that port and afterwards to reship them with- 
out paying a heavy duty. The treaty gave great satisfaction 
to the Western men, but the Spanish were very slow in carry- 
ing out the agreement; it was not till 1797 that they gave up 
the posts at Natchez and elsewhere, and in 1798 this section 
was organized as Mississippi territory. 

98. The Purchase of Louisiana. — All the possessions of the 
United States lay to the east of the Mississij^pi Eiver, but the 
state of affairs in Europe led now to most important expansion 
to the west of that river. Spain had made a secret treaty with 

France by which she ceded the territory of Louisiana. 

Jefferson, learning of this, sent a commission to 
France to buy the island on which New Orleans stood, and 

also the right of passage to the sea. He did this at 

' the urgent demand of Western men, who were in a 

state of great indignation because the right of deposit at 

New Orleans had suddenly been withdrawn, and no other spot 

named. 

Bonaparte was at this time expecting a war between France 
and England. He knew that in case of war an English fleet 
would be sent to the Gulf to take possession of Louisiana. It 
would be impossible for the French to hold the post of New 
Orleans ; but he was determined that the place should not fall 
into the hands of his great enemy. While the American com- 



110 Longitude 100 I 




THE EXPANSION OF THE UNION. 233 

missioners were considering the purchase of New Orleans, he 
came forward with a proposition to sell not only what they 
wanted, but all Louisiana. The commissioners had been in- 
structed to offer two and a half million dollars for the island. 
Bonaparte named the price of twenty million dollars for the 
whole country. 

He would not give the commissioners time to consult with 
the American government. England might declare war at any 
moment. So, after some bargaining, it was agreed that France 
should make over to the United States all the territory which 
she had lately received from Spain. The United States was 
to pay France fifteen million dollars. Bonaparte was delighted 
with the sale. He had received a large sum for a country 
which he would shortly have had to surrender to England ; he 
had increased the friendliness of France and the United States ; 
he had aimed a heavy blow at England. " This accession of 
territory," he said, "strengthens forever the power of the 
United States. I have given England a maritime rival, which 
will sooner or later humble her pride." 

99. The Exploration of Louisiana. — The United States took 
formal possession of the territory December 20, 1803. But no 
one really knew just what Louisiana included. Eoughly, the 
name was applied by the French and Spanish to the whole 
western half of the Mississippi Valley and the country between 
the Mississippi and the Eio Grande. Very few people had any 
idea of the worth of the purchase, and Jefferson was accused 
of contradicting his own interpretation of the Constitution for 
making it. The settlers at the West, however, were over- 
joyed. Jefferson's popularity was increased by this and other 
measures, so that he was reelected President by a very large 
majority. 

He sent two officers of the army, Meriwether Lewis and 
William Clarke, with a party, to explore the vast country of 
Louisiana. They spent nearly three years in the journey. 
They ascended the Missouri and crossed the Rocky Mountains. 
They discovered the two rivers now called Lewis Eiver and 



234 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION, 

Clarke Eiver, followed them to tlie Columbia, and thus reached 
the Pacific. It was a wonderful journey, and gave the Ameri- 
can people their first knowledge of a great country which lay 
even beyond their new boundaries.^ 

100. Aaron Burr's Schemes. — During Jefferson's first term 
Aaron Burr was Vice President. He was a restless, scheming 
man, and was distrusted by the better men of the country. ^ 
While Vice President he had killed Hamilton in a 
' duel. Dueling was not then felt to be a disgrace, as it 
is now, and Burr continued to hold office ; but when his term 
ended, he left the Atlantic States to seek his fortune in the 
West. Although Louisiana was now United States soil, the 
whole country bordering the Mississippi was remote from 
the older settlements, and offered great temptations to a bold, 
adventurous leader like Burr. 

He gathered a company of daring men, and after two 
years of preparation began to descend the Mississippi. Ex- 
actly what his purpose was, no one seemed to know. 
Apparently he intended to seize the Spanish posses- 
sions in Mexico, and to establish himself and his followers 
in power there, as Cortez had done before him. At any 
rate, his expedition was hostile to Spain, and the United 
States was at peace with that country. The President suf- 
fered him to make all his preparations; but when he was 
actually on the march, Jefferson issued a proclamation de- 
nouncing him. One who was in Burr's confidence is said to 
have betrayed him. The movement was stopped at Natchez, 
and Burr was arrested. He was tried for treason, but was 
not convicted, owing to an error in the form of the legal 
proceedings. 

1 The report of Lewis and Clarke's expedition issued by government has 
recently been republished under the editorship of Dr. Elliott Coues. Jefferson's 
Life of Captain Meriwether Leivis is given in Old South Leaflets, No. 44. 

2 Burr appears as a character in Mrs. Stowe's novel, The Minister's Wooing, 
and also in E. L. Bynner's story, Zachary Phips. 



THE EXPANSION OF THE UNION. 235 

QUESTIONS. 

"Who succeeded John Adams in the Presidency ? Who was Vice Presi- 
dent with him in his first term ? What early settlements were made in 
Ohio ? From what directions did settlers come ? What was Pinckney's 
treaty and what did it secure ? ' Narrate the circumstances attending the 
purchase of Louisiana. To what did the name of Louisiana apply ? 
What measures were taken to become acquainted with the new territory ? 
Who was Aaron Burr, and what was his adventure in the Southwest ? 

SEARCH QUESTIONS. 

What town in Ohio was early settled by Rufus Putnam and other 
soldiers ? How did Cleveland get its name ? What was the origin of the 
name Cincinnati ? What was the " Firelands " ? How did the Columbia 
River get its name ? Who was Blennerhasset, and what had he to do with 
Burr's schemes ? What States and territories have been made out of the 
Louisiana territory ? 

SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. 

Compositions : 

An account of the inauguration of Jefferson. 

The early settlement of Marietta. 

An account of Lewis and Clarke's expedition. 

Debates : 

Eesolved, that Burr was a traitor. 

Besolved, That the President should be elected by the direct vote of 
the people. 

Besolved, That the coming into power of the National Republican 
party in Jefferson's election was the best thing for the people. 



CHAPTER XL 



THE UNITED STATES ENTANGLED WITH EUROPE. 



Algiers (al-jerz'). 

Tunis (tu'nis). 

Trip'o-li. 

Dey (da). The title of the governor 

of one of the Barbary States. 
Deca'tur. 
Derne (der'ne). 



Block-ade'. The closing of the 
ports of a country against vessels 
entering or leaving. 

Im-press'. To force into service. 

Em-bar'go. An order forbidding 
ships to leave port. 

Tippecanoe (tip-e-ka-noo'). 



101. The War in Europe The war which was imminent 

when the United States acquired Louisiana broke out shortly 
after with great fury, and caused the people on the Atlantic 
coast to watch affairs on the other side of the ocean anx- 
iously ; for war in Europe meant peril to American ships and 
sailors. There was, meantime, peril to American commerce 
from another source. A great trade was carried on in the 
Mediterranean Sea. The countries which bordered on it 
produced fruits and other articles not found elsewhere. The 
eastern ports, also, were depots for goods brought overland 
from Asia. 

102. The Pirates of the Barbary States. — Upon the south 
shore of the Mediterranean Sea was a group of states called 
the Barbary States. They were Algiers, Morocco, Tunis, 
and Tripoli. The people of these countries were chiefly 
Moors, Turks, and Arabs, and they were Mohammedan in 
religion. The ports of the Barbary States were infested by 
pirates, who darted out upon the vessels which sailed up and 
down the Mediterranean. These pirates were the terror of 
Europe. They not only plundered vessels and committed many 
murders, but they were also slave dealers, and sold into slavery 

236 



ENTANGLEMENT WITH EUROPE, 237 

the sailors whom they captured.^ Some mercantile countries 
of Europe paid a yearly tribute to the rulers of the Barbary 
States, that their vessels might be let alone. 

War with Tripoli. — England was the only nation these 
pirates really feared. So long as American vessels were 
under the English flag, they were reasonably secure. But 
when the United States became an independent nation, the 
pirates began to attack her merchant vessels, and to demand 
tribute. At first the government paid tribute, as the easiest 
way to protect American commerce. This went on until it 
was a humiliation not to be endured. The pirates grew more 
insolent, and in 1801 the Dey of Tripoli declared war upon 
the United States, because he was dissatisfied with the pay- 
ments made to him. .Eor four years a series of fights took 
place between the pirates and the few vessels which could be 
spared from the little American navy. 

Decatur's Exploit. — One of the American naval officers per- 
formed a famous exploit. The Philadelphia, an American 
frigate, struck a reef in the harbor of Tripoli, and the com- 
mander was obliged to surrender the helpless vessel. A very 
high tide rose, floated her off, and gave the Tripolitans a fine 
addition to their navy. Stephen Decatur, a young lieutenant, 
entered the harbor with a small vessel, and, pre- 
tending to have lost his anchor, made fast to the -.r^Q» ' . 
Philadelphia. He had a number of men concealed 
in his vessel, and suddenly, at a signal, they all rushed aboard 
the Philadelphia. They set fire to it, returned without the 
loss of a man to their own vessel, and sailed away to the fleet 
outside. 

End of the War. — The American navy in the Mediterranean 
was increased in the autumn of 1804. A vigorous attack was 
made upon the pirates, and a land force aided in capturing 
Derne, one of the ports of Tripoli. A treaty of peace was 
made, and prisoners were exchanged. This put an end for a 

1 Readers of Robinson Crusoe will remember how, in the early part of that 
story, Crusoe was thus captured. 



238 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION, 

» 

while to the piracy. The war with Tripoli had compelled the 
United States to build more war vessels ; it trained 
* the American navy, somewhat as the French and 
Indian War had made officers and soldiers ready for the war 
of independence, and the country took pride in the exploits of 
its sailors. 

103. The European War in its Effect on American Commerce — 
There was immediate need of strength at sea, for the struggle 
between France and England was growing desperate, and all 
Europe was drawn into it. In 1804 Napoleon Bonaparte be- 
came Emperor of France. He was a general such as Europe 
had never before seen. He had behind him soldiers who would 
go wherever he might lead them. All France was flushed with 
victory and eager for further conquest. The countries were 
forced to take sides either with England or with France. In 
1806 Napoleon fought a series of battles which left England 
and Russia alone unconquered; he planned to subdue those 
countries also. England's power was in her commerce and 
manufactures ; Napoleon aimed to destroy these. He issued 
from Berlin a decree, declaring that England was in a state of 
blockade. He claimed the right to seize all vessels trading 

with England or her colonies. England replied with 
I'ft'nfi ' ^^ Order in Council, that is, an order made by the 

king and his ministry, not an act of Parliament ; this 
order forbade all commerce with the ports of Europe which 
were within the French dominion or in countries allied with 
France. 

104. The Impressment of Seamen. — The effect of these and 
similar proclamations was felt severely by American mer- 
chants. As neutrals, the Americans had secured almost all 
the carrying trade of Europe, and had a very large business 
in the West Indies. The decision made in the English courts 
took away from neutrals all but the most insignificant privi- 
leges, and the English navy pounced down on American vessels 
under the slightest pretext. Not only were merchant vessels 
captured and sailors impressed under pretense that they were 



ENTANGLEMENT WITH EUROPE. 239 

Englishmen, but the British ship Leopard overhauled the 
American frigate Chesapeake in American waters 
and took from her some men who were said to have ^807 ' 
deserted from the British navy. 

This affair excited the greatest indignation in the United 
States. President Jefferson issued a proclamation forbidding 
British armed vessels to enter American ports. The British 
government made a half apology for what was really an act 
of war. The United States could only protest. She had no 
navy strong enough to enable her to demand satisfaction. 

105. The Embargo and Non-Intercourse Acts. — It was neces- 
sary to pursue some policy in answer to the repression of 
American commerce, and Jefferson induced Congress to pass 
an Embargo Bill. By this bill all American vessels were 
forbidden to leave American ports for Europe. For- 

eign vessels were forbidden to land cargoes. The -.qq^ ' 
purpose of the embargo was to cripple European, and 
especially English, trade ; but England did not need our trade 
nearly so much as we needed hers. The chief effect of the 
embargo was therefore to impoverish American merchants, and 
to stop business in the ports from which their vessels sailed. 

Next it cut off farmers and planters from sending their 
produce abroad. It soon appeared that the United States 
could not get along without Europe. * As months went on, 
the Embargo Act became so unpopular, that before the close 
of Jefferson's second term many of his friends forsook him. 
A great pressure was brought to bear, and Congress repealed 
the act. It passed, in its place, a Non-Intercourse Act, which 
continued the embargo with England and France, but left 
commerce free with other European countries. 

106. Madison's Administration. — The Non-Intercourse Act 
went into operation March 4, 1809, when James Madison suc- 
ceeded to the Presidency. Madison held office for two terms, 
from 1809 to 1817. He belonged to Jefferson's party, and 
continued the same policy. Party feeling had grown very 
bitter. New England, which suffered most from the breaking 



240 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 




James Madison. ^ 

1 James Madison was born in Orange County, Virginia, March 16, 1751. 
He was graduated at Princeton in 1772, and studied a year longer in theology. 
He went home and taught his younger brothers and sisters, for he was the 
eldest of twelve children, and meanwhile applied himself to the study of law 
and history. He was soon to have occasion to make large use of his attain- 
ments. He was the youngest member of the Committee of Safety, in Orange 
County, in 1774; was a delegate to the State Convention, where he took part 
in making a constitution ; was delegate to the Continental Congress in 1780. 
He was practically the author of the plan by which the government was dis- 
tributed among the three great powers of legislature, judicial, and executive, 
and also the system by which the House of Representatives was based on popu- 
lation, the Senate on States. He died at Montpelier, Virginia, June 28, 1836. 



ENTANGLEMENT WITH EUROPE. 241 

up of trade, was the stronghold of the Federalists. These 
complained loudly that if it were not for the Embargo and 
Non-Intercourse acts there would be no trouble. The Southern 
and Western people, who were principally Democratic-Kepub- 
licans, retorted that they had evidence of negotiations between 
the New England Federalists and England ; that the Federal- 
ists were planning for a separation of New England from the 
Union. This charge was indignantly denied, but it helped to 
increase political hostility. 

107. Indian Hostilities On the western frontier was another 

enemy, the ever- watchful Indian. The Indians were wont to 
fight in scattered parties, but now and then a great chief arose 
who had the skill to combine many tribes into one army. Such. 
a chief was Philip in the early days, and Pontiac later. Now 
appeared another, Tecumseh, who was aided by his brother, the 
Prophet, a man of great influence among the Indians. William 
Henry Harrison, afterward President, and at this time governor 
of Indiana territory, had persuaded some of the tribes to give 
up their lands in return for presents. Tecumseh and 

the Prophet declared that these tribes had no right nmi ' 
to give up what belonged to all. A sharp contest 
followed, which ended with the battle of Tippecanoe, when 
Harrison defeated Tecumseh. 

108. The Seizure of Vessels and Men. — All this while, 
France and England continued at war. Napoleon was study- 
ing how he might get the better of England, and he withdrew 
his decrees prohibiting commerce with England so far as the 
United States was concerned. Congress at once repealed the 
Non-Intercourse Act so far as it related to France. England 
and the United States grew more irritated v/ith each other. 
^The English continued to seize vessels and men. More than 

line hundred American vessels had been seized since 1803. 

Several thousand American seamen had been impressed into 
[the British service. The people of the United States were 

jxasperated at their losses, and at their inability to protect 
'themselves. 



242 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 

109. War declared against Great Britain. — Madison wished 
to continue the general peace policy of Jefferson, but his 
party refused to follow his lead. New leaders sprang up, 
among whom were Henry Clay, of Kentucky, and John C. 
Calhoun, of South Carolina. They obeyed the demands of 
the country, and compelled Congress to raise an army and 
strengthen the navy. On the 18th of June, "1812, Congress 
formally declared war against England. It was by no means a 
unanimous movement. The New England Federalists bitterly 
opposed it. The chief support came from the South and 
West, which felt less keenly the effect upon their prosperity 
caused by the breaking up of commerce, and on the other hand 
were brought directly in contact with the enemy upon the 
border. 

QUESTIONS. 

Why should the United States have been affected by a war in Europe ? 
What were the Barbary States? What effect did tlie piracy have on 
commerce ? How did Americans first protect themselves ? Narrate the 
exploit of Decatur. What was the end of the war ? What was the career 
of Napoleon? How did France and England retaliate on each other? 
How did the United States feel the war ? What was the affair of the 
Chesapeake ? How did Jefferson seek to strengthen the United States ? 
Explain the Embargo Bill, the Non-Intercourse Act. Who succeeded 
Jefferson ? Narrate the war with the Indians. Describe the further com- 
plications with England and France. What new leaders came to the 
front ? What was the attitude of the New England Federalists ? 

SEARCH QUESTIONS. 

What was meant by "once an Englishman always an Englishman" ? 
What was meant by the "carrying trade"? Why did New England 
oppose the War of 1812 ? 

SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. 

Composition : 

An account of the battle of Tippecanoe. 

Debate : 

Besolved, That the Embargo Act was beneficial to the American people. 



CHAPTER XII. 



THE SECOND WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 



Guerriere (ge-ri-ar'). 

To strike colors is to lower the flag 

in token of surrender. 
Meigs (megz). 



Cockburn (ko'biirn). 
Borgne (born). 
Pakenham (pak'en-3,m). 
Ghent (gent). 



110. Causes of the War The chief grounds on which the 

United States went to war with England were the inter- 
ference with the neutral trade by the Orders in Council, 
the impressment of seamen, and the inciting the Indians on 
the border. This last cause of hostility led to immediate 
action in the northwest. The nearest part of Great Britain 
which the United States army could reach was Canada. 

111. Movements on the Canada Border General Henry Dear- 
born was commander-in-chief, and General William Hull, gov- 
ernor -of Michigan territory, was commander of the forces in 
the West. As soon as war was declared, General Hull moved 
a small army across the Detroit River, and demanded the sur- 
render of Fort Maiden. The British had moved first. They 
had surprised Fort Mackinaw, at the head of Lake Huron, and 
captured it. The Indians saw their opportunity to fight the 
people who were occupying their lands, and at once joined the 
British. 

Hull, fearing he could not hold his position, recrossed the 
[river and occupied Detroit, which was a fortified place. The 
'British general, Isaac Brock, followed him, and de- 
tmanded the surrender of Detroit. Hull had no con- -^g^o ' 
idence that he could stand out against the larger 
force which was brought against him, and surrendered. Peo- 
ple were furious, and declared Hull to be another Benedict 

243 



244 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 



Arnold. He was tried by court-martial and sentenced to be 
shot; but the President pardoned him. 

A fresh attempt was made to invade Canada. The Americans 
crossed Niagara E-iverj and planned to take Queenstown Heights 













(see map, p. 248). They gained 
some advantage at first, and 
drove the British before them. 
General Brock, who 

Oct. 13, ^ T.^ ^ r' 

1812 ^"^^^ George, 

hurried to the field, 

and was mortally wounded. 

The Americans were obliged to retreat, though they made a 
gallant stand under Lieutenant Colonel Winfield Scott. The 
expedition was a failure. 

112. Naval Operations. — While the Americans were thus 
defeated on the Canada border, they were winning victories 
on that battle ground where the greatest grievance had been. 
The little American navy of twenty ships of war and a few 



TEE SECOND WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 245 

gunboats had to encounter the English navy of more than a 
thousand vessels. But every American sailor was fighting for 
his rights as well as for his country. Within an hour after 
the declaration of war was known, Commodore John Kodgers, 
of the President, weighed anchor and was off to catch the 
nearest British ship. He chased a frigate, which escaped. 
He crossed the Atlantic, and captured a privateer and seven 
merchantmen. He retook an American ship which had been 
captured by the enemy, returned with his prizes to America, 
and was off again. 

Naval Victories. — Other American ships were equally ac- 
tive. The frigate Constitution, Captain Isaac Hull, who 
was a nephew of General Hull, fought the British frigate 
Guerriere, and in half an hour made her strike her 
colors. He put back to Boston to land his prisoners, ^^-.n ' 
The whole town turned out to meet him, and people 
were wild with delight at the bravery of their sailors. Stephen 
Decatur, who was now commodore, and in command of the 
frigate United States, captured the frigate Macedonian, and 
brought his prize into New York on New Year's day. The 
Constitution, again, now under Commodore Bain- 
bridge, attacked the British ship Java off the South -.V-^q ' 
American coast, and demolished it. 

People gave to the Constitution the name "Old Ironsides."^ 
Besides the little navy, many merchantmen were turned into 
privateers, and went roving about the seas. Nearly three hun- 
dred British vessels, with three thousand prisoners, were 
brought into United States ports before winter. There were 
occasional losses, but the advantage was decidedly with the 
Americans. The British, after the defeat which they had 
suffered from the American navy in 1812, strengthened their 
Atlantic squadron. During the summer of 1813 they at- 

1 In 1833, when it was proposed to destroy her as unseaworthy, Holmes 
wrote the stirring poem, '* Old Ironsides," and saved her. She was rebuilt, and 
did service until she was formally put out of commission, in 1881, and taken 
to Portsmouth Navy Yard. Congress has again voted to repair her (1897). 



246 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 

tempted to blockade the coast from Maine to Georgia. Con- 
gress, in turn, hastened to build new ships ; and the courageous 
privateers continued to fight pluckily, and to bring prizes into 
United States ports. 

113. Harrison's Campaign. — The disasters on land had led 
the government to collect a larger army, which was placed 

under command of General Harrison. The British 

-fp!.o ' and Indians, led by General Proctor and Tecumseh, 

made several attempts against Harrison's forces. 

They succeeded at Frenchtown, where a portion of Harrison's 

army was placed; but they failed at Fort Meigs and Fort 

Stephenson. 

Perry's Victory on Lake Erie. — So much of the frontier was 
occupied by the Great Lakes that it was of the greatest impor- 
tance to get control of these. Captain Oliver H. Perry directed 
the building of a fleet on Lake Erie, and sailors were sent for- 
ward from the seacoast. He had just completed nine vessels, 
which were at anchor in Put-in Bay, when he saw the British 
approaching. He at once moved out to meet the 
^^n o ' enemy, and in a little more than two hours was able 
to send this despatch to General Harrison: "We 
have met the enemy, and they are ours : two ships, two brigs, 
one schooner, and one sloop." 

The Battle of the Thames. — Harrison was anxious to recover 
possession of Michigan, which had been lost when Hull sur- 
rendered Detroit. With the aid of Perry's fleet, which trans- 
ported some of his troops, he moved upon Fort Maiden. 
Proctor set fire to the fort and retreated with 
I8I3' ^'ecumseh, meaning to join the other British forces 
at Niagara. Harrison set out in pursuit, and Proctor 
halted on the river Thames, near Moravian Town, where a bat- 
tle was fought. The British were defeated ; Proctor escaped, 
but Tecumseh was killed. The American success restored 
Michigan to the country, and Harrison became very popular. 

114. Operations in the Southwest. — The war gave the Indians 
an opportunity which they were quick to seize. In the South 



THE SECOND WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 



247 



I 



the Americans had taken possession of Mobile, which was held 
by a few Spaniards. It was in territory claimed both by Spain 
and by the United States. The Spaniards had no power to 
resist, but they incited the Creek Indians to take up arms 
against the Americans. The people of the southwestern 
States raised companies to fight an enemy which was thus at 
their very doors. 

The Creeks were a vigorous tribe, and were partly supplied 
with arms and ammunition. They surprised Fort Mimms, 
and destroyed the garrison. Then 
they marched into the interior, 
and up the Alabama River. 
Tennessee was prompt in raising 
men, and placed Andrew Jackson 
in command. He was aided by 
pioneers who were skilled in In- 
dian warfare. Other forces, also, 
came from Georgia and Mississ- 



ippi, 



and durins: the rest of the 



year and the begin- 
ning of 1814 the 
Creeks were hard 
pushed. The whites, 
who hated the Indi- 
ans, and were never 
sorry of an excuse 
to get rid of them, 
killed great numbers 
and showed no quar- 
ter. 




Map illustrating the Creek War. 



115. The Campaigns of 1814. — The Americans made a fresh 
effort to invade Canada in 1814. They failed in an 
attempt to retake Fort Mackinaw, but a movement -loL' 
on the Niagara River was more successful. At the 
battle of Chippewa they put the British to rout, and then 
determined to move upon Kingston. , 



248 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION, 



BIO 



July 25. 

1814. 



Battle of Lundy's Lane. — To do this, it was necessary to 
have the cooperation of the fleet; but the fleet was not ready. 
The British had been reenforced, and were strongly X30sted at 
Queenstown. General Scott was sent forward to make obser- 
vations, and came upon the entire British force drawn up at 
Lundy's Lane, opposite Niagara Falls. Here the Americans 
attacked the British, and sent back for reenforcements. A 

terrible fight followed, in 
which both armies suf- 
fered severely. 
The British were 
repulsed; but the 
Americans were too ex- 
hausted to follow up 
their victory, and re- 
turned to Chippewa. 
Their principal officers 
were wounded, and Scott 
was unable to return to 
duty again during the 
war. The Americans re- 
treated to the defenses 
of Fort Erie, and the 
British besieged the 
place. The siege lasted 




■^ A K u :e n 
NIAGARA RIVER 

<in«^a . _ — — .in Miles 



through the summer, and 
then the British aban- 
doned it. The Ameri- 
cans destroyed the fort and returned to their side of the river. 
The campaign had cost many lives, and neither party had 
gained any real advantage. 

Burning of Washington. — The British, however, seemed to 
be gaining. In Europe Napoleon had been defeated, and 
England was thus enabled to spare more men for the war in 
America. Her policy was to march two armies into the 
United States. One army was to descend from Canada, and 



THE SECOND WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 249- 

the other was to land at New Orleans and march northward. 
To divert attention, a fleet under Admiral Cockburn sailed up 
the Potomac and attacked the capital. There was 
scarcely any resistance, and, to their disgrace, the ^^'-.^ ' 
British destroyed public buildings, books, and jm- 
pers; nothing was spared except the Patent Office and tlie jail. 

British Repulse at Fort McHenry and at Plattsburg Another 

attack was made by a British fleet upon Baltimore. The 

enemy landed men a few miles below the town, but 

the Americans gallantly repulsed them. Then the ?o\a ' 

fleet bombarded the forts which protected Baltimore, 

and tried to land men to attack them in the rear. The forts 

could not reach the vessels, but they drove back the land 

forces. Fort McHenry received the hottest fire from the fleet. 

It was upon seeing the flag still flying from the fort, when 
the smoke cleared away, that Francis Scott Key wrote the 
national song, "The Star-spangled Banner." The fleet finally 
abandoned the attempt, and sailed away. The British under- 
took to bring their army from Canada to New York by the 
familiar Lake Champlain route. General Macomb, 
in command of a small force at Plattsburg, and iqia. ' 
Lieutenant Macdonough, with a little fleet, com- 
pletely repulsed the British at the battle of Plattsburg, and 
compelled them to return to Canada. 

116. The Operations about New Orleans. — The army and fleet 
which were to take New Orleans made their rendezvous at 
Pensacola. Louisiana had been admitted to the Union in 
1812, and every one felt the importance of New Orleans.^ If 

1 The importance of New Orleans was early perceived, as will be seen by- 
Section 24 of the Introduction. The free passage of the river was a matter of 
the greatest consequence to the Western settlers. See Sections 49, 01, 97-99, 
above. It was a matter of the utmost importance during the war for the 
Union ; but perhaps no struggle has been so severe as that of science to keep 
the channel free. The engineering works at the mouth of the Mississippi, 
built under the direction of Captain J. B. Eads, under contract with the United 
States government, resulted in keeping clear a channel of two hundred feet 
in width, and more than twenty feet in depth. 



250 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 



the British should obtain possession of it, they would control 
the Mississippi and the Western country. Andrew Jackson was 
in command of the Southwestern forces, and moved rapidly to 



/ i 




Andrew Jackson. 

the coast. The British had been prevented by Fort Bowyer 
from taking Mobile, and they abandoned Pensacola when 
Jackson approached. They were more intent on New Orleans, 
and moved their men and vessels to Lake Borgne. Jackson 
hurried after them, and made vigorous preparations to defend 



THE SECOND WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 251 

New Orleans. He called upon everybody, white and black, to 
help build fortifications. He led his men out of the town, 
and attacked the enemy in their camp at night. His energy 
inspired the greatest enthusiasm. General Sir Edward Paken- 
ham and General Gibbs were in command of the British 
forces. Their men were miserably encamped in a marsh. 
They made defenses of hogsheads of sugar, while Jackson 
used cotton bales for the same purpose. The guns on each 
side quickly destroyed these temporary barricades, and Jack- 
son used the black mud of the river bank with which to make 
earthworks. 

117. Battle of New Orleans. — After a fortnight's siege, the 
British determined to storm the American works. Early in the 
morning of January 8, 1815, they made the attack. Jack- 
son's men, trained to rifle shooting, and aided by artillery, 
met them with coolness. A second attack was made, but in 
less than half an hour from the first assault, the battle was 
over. General Pakenham was killed; General Gibbs was 
mortally wounded; a Highland regiment which had made a 
brave and stubborn assault was cut to pieces. The British 
withdrew, completely disheartened. The fleet failed to pass 
the fort which guarded the town, and the whole expedition 
was abandoned. 

118. The Treaty of Ghent. — The victory was a complete one 
for the Americans; yet the battle was unnecessary. A fort- 
night before it was fought, a treaty of peace between the two 
countries had been signed at Ghent, in Belgium. 
Neither army knew of it, nor did the news at once -.^^^ ' 
reach the scattered vessels of the navy. These con- 
tinued their operations until one by one they learned that the 
war was over. So bitter had been the continued opposition 
to the war in New England, that while the battle of New 
Orleans was going on, a convention of the New England States 
was sitting at Hartford, Connecticut, and passing resolutions 
very like the Virginia and Kentucky resolutions of 1798. In 
those days news traveled slowly, and a delegation was on its 



252 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 

way from Hartford to Washington when the word came that 
peace had been declared. 

119. The independence of the United States was securely fixed 
by the War of 1812. Although in the treaty of Ghent there 
was no word about the impressment of seamen, that grievance 
was not again to arise. The country was not only established 
in its own domain, but it had equal rights with Europe on the 
broad seas. It was henceforth to be one of the great powers 
of the world. The last vestige of subjection to the Old 
World disappeared when Decatur sailed into the harbor of 
Algiers in June, 1815. That country had again declared war 
upon the United States. Decatur compelled the Algerines to 
meet him on his own ship and give up forever all their de- 
mands. The other Barbary States signed similar treaties, and 
American commerce was free. 

QUESTIONS. 

What were the causes of the war with Great Britain ? Where did 
operations begin ? Wliat was the result of the first encounter ? Narrate 
the affair of Queenstown Heights. What was the size of the American 
navy at this time ? Tell of the exploits of Rodgers ; of Isaac Hull ; of 
Decatur. What is the history of the ship Constitution ? How was the 
navy reenforced ? Narrate the beginning of Harrison's campaign. Tell 
of Perry's victory. Proceed with Harrison's movements. What went on 
in the Southwest ? Describe the campaign of 1814. What was the British 
plan of operation ? Give an account of the affair out of which the " Star- 
spangled Banner" arose. What was the battle of Plattsburg ? Narrate 
the incidents which led up to the battle of New Orleans. What was the 
result of the battle itself ? Need it have been fought ? What was the 
Hartford Convention ? What was the final sign of the independence of 
the United States ? 

SEARCH QUESTIONS. 

What were the terms of the treaty of Ghent ? How much of the old 
Constitution remains in the vessel now to be seen ? 

SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. 
Debate : 

Eesolved, That the Hartford Convention was a secession movement. 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS. 253 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS FOR REVIEW. 

I. The Government in Operation. 

1. The Executive Department. 

a. The President and Vice President, 67. 
h. The Cabinet, 68. 

2. The Judiciary, 69. 

3. The Legislature, 67. 

4. The first work of Congressi 

a. Upon the Constitution, 70. 

h. In the payment of the debt, 71. 

c. In estabhshing a bank, 72. 

d. In raising revenue, 72. 

e. In enlarging the Union, 73. 

5. The rise of parties, 71. 

II. The Condition of the People. 

1. In the East and South. 

a. The population and its distribution, 74. 
6. The occupation of the people, 
i. At the North, 75, 77. 
ii. At the South, 75-77. 

c. The development of natural resources, 78. 

d. Education and religion, 79. 

2. In the West. 

a. The movement thither, 80. 

h. Constituents of the population, 80. 

c. Complications with Indians, 80. 

d. Voluntary political organization, 80, 82. 

e. Political organization under the Constitution, 81, 82, 83. 
/. Mode of life, 84. 

III. Relations with Europe during Washington's Administration. 

1. Commercial relations, 8j5. 

2. The interest of Europe in America, 85. 

3. The interest of the United States in France, 85. 

4. The effect upon political parties, 85. 

5. Effect of the European war. 
a. On commerce, 86. 

h. On politics, 86. 

6. The treaty with England, 87, 88. 

7. Washington's views on foreign relations, 90. 



254 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 

• 

IV. Internal Affairs during Washington's Administration. 

1. Difficulties with Indians, 88. 

2. The Whisky Rebellion, 89. 

3. Washington's views on domestic relations, 90. 

V. Relations with Europe during John Adams's Administration, 

1. The behavior of France, 91. 

2. The embassy sent by Adams, and its treatment, 91. 

3. The effect upon the country. 

a. In strengthening the national feeling, 91. 

b. In provoking the Alien and Sedition Laws, 92. 

4. The policy of Napoleon Bonaparte, 94. 

5. The Spanish treaty, 97. 

VI. Internal Affairs during John Adams's Administration. 

The death of Washington, 95. 
VII. Relations with Europe during Jefferson's Administration. 

1. The war with the Barbary pirates, 101, 102. 

2. The effect of the European war on American commerce, 104. 

3. The efforts made by Jefferson to meet the difficulty, 104, 105. 
VIII. Internal Affairs during Jefferson's Administration. 

1. The occupation and organization of Ohio, 96. 

2. The exploration of Louisiana territory, 99. 

3. Burr's adventure, 100. 

IX. Relations with Europe during Madison's Administration. 

1. The Non-Intercourse Act, 106. 

2. Effect of foreign policy upon domestic parties, 106, 109. 

3. The break with England, 108, 109. 

4. The settlement of the Barbary troubles, 119. 
X. The War of 1812-1815. 

1. Movements on the Canada border, 110, 111. 

2. Naval victories at sea m 1812, 112. 

3. The operations on and about the Lakes, 113. 

4. Operations on the Canada border ni 1814, 115. 

6. The raids on Washington and Baltimore, 115. 

6. The operations about New Orleans, 116, 117. 

7. The end of the war, 118, 119. 
XI. Dealings with the Indians. 

1. The pioneer and the Indian, 80, 84. 

2. Frontier fighting, 88, 107. 

3. Fights growing out of the war with England. 

a. The Indians in alliance with the English, 111, 113. 

b. The Creek War, 114. 



TUE ADMINISTRATIONS. 255 

THE ADMINISTRATIONS. 

First Administration. 

1789-1793. 

President, George Washington, Virginia. 
Vice President, John Adams, Massachusetts. 
Cabinet: 

Secretanj of State, Thomas Jefferson, Virginia. 

Secretary of Treasury, Alexander Hamilton, New York. 

Secretary of War, Henry Knox, Massachusetts. 

Attorney General, Edmund Randolph, Virginia. • 

Second Administration. 

1793-1797. 

President, George Washington. 
Vice President, John Adams. 
Cabinet : 

Secretary of State, Thomas Jefferson. 

Edmund Randolph. From Jan. 2, 1794. 
Timothy Pickering, Massachusetts. From Dec. 10, 
1795. 
Secretary of Treasury, Alexander Hamilton. 

Oliver Wolcott, Connecticut. From Feb. 2, 
1795. 
Secretary of War, Henry Knox. 

Timothy Pickering. From Jan. 2, 1795. 
James McHenry, Maryland. From Jan. 27, 1796. 
Attorney General, Edmund Randolph. 

William Bradford, Pennsylvania. From Jan. 8, 

1794. 
Charles Lee, Virginia. From Dec. 10, 1795. 

Third Administration. 

1797-1801. 

President, John Adams. 

Vice President, Thomas Jefferson. 



256 ESTABLISHMENT 0^ THE UNION. 

Cabinet : 

Secretary of State, Timothy Pickering. 

John Marshall, Virginia. From May 13, 1800. 
Secretary of Treasury, Oliver Wolcott. 

Samuel Dexter, Massachusetts. From Jan. 1, 
1801. 
Secretary of War, James McHenry. 

Samuel Dexter. From May 13, 1800. 
Roger Griswold (acting), Connecticut. From Feb. 
3, 1801. 
Secretary of Navy, Benjamin Stoddert, Maryland. From May 3, 1798. 
Attorney General, Charles Lee. 

Fourth Administration. 
1801-1805. 

President, Thomas Jefferson. 

Vice President, Aaron Burr, New York. 

Cabinet : 

Secretary of- State, James Madison, Virginia. 
Secretary of Treasury, Samuel Dexter. 

Albert Gallatin, Pennsylvania. From May 15, 
1801. 
Secretary of War, Henry Dearborn, Massachusetts. 
Secretary of Navy, Benjamin Stoddert. 

Robert Smith, Maryland. From Jan. 26, 1802. 
Jacob Crowninshield, Massachusetts. From March 
2, 1805. 
Attorney General, Levi Lincoln, Massachusetts. 

Robert Smith. From March 2, 1805. 

Fifth Administration. 

1805-1809. 

President, Thomas Jefferson. 

Vice President, George Clinton, New York. 

Cabinet : 

Secretary of State, James Madison. 

Secretary of Treasury, Albert Gallatin. 

Secretary of War, Henry Dearborn. 

Secretary of Navy, Jacob Crowninshield. 



i 



THE ADMINISTRATIONS. 257 

Attorney General, Robert Smith. 

John Breckinridge, Kentucky. From Dec. 25, 

1805. 
Csesar A. Kodney, Delaware. From Jan. 20, 1807. 

Sixth Administration. 
1809-1813. 

President, James Madison. 
Vice President, George Clinton. 
Cabinet : 

Secretary of State, Robert Smith. 

James Monroe, Virginia. From April 2, 1811. 
Secretary of Treasury, Albert Gallatin. 
Secretary of War, William Eustis, Massachusetts. 

John Armstrong, New York. From Jan. 13, 1813. 
Secretary of Navy, Paul Hamilton, S.C. From March 7, 1809. 
William Jones, Penn. From Jan. 12, 1813. 
Attorney General, Csesar A. Rodney. 

William Pinkney, Maryland. From Dec. 11, 1811. 

Seventh Administration. 

1813-1817. 

President, James Madison. 

Vice President, Elbridge Gerry, Massachusetts. 

Cabinet : 

Secretary of State, James Monroe. 
Secretary of Treasury, Albert Gallatin. 

George W, Campbell, Tennessee. From Feb. 

9, 1814. 
Alexander J. Dallas, Penn. From Oct. G, 1814. 
Secretary of War, John Armstrong. 

James Monroe (acting). From Sept. 20, 1814. 
William H. Crawford, Georgia. From March 3, 
1815. 
Secretary of Navy, William Jones, Pennsylvania. 

Benjamin W. Crowninshield, Massachusetts. From 
Dec. 19, 1814. 
Attorney General, William Pinkney. 

Richard Rush, Pennsylvania. From Feb, 10, 1814. 
s 



258 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

First Congress met in New York March 4, 1789 

Washington inaugurated President April 30, 1789 

Constitution ratified by North Carolina 1789 

Constitution ratified by Rhode Island 1790 

First United States census 1790 

First United States Bank 1791 

Vermont admitted into the Union 1791 

Kentucky admitted into the Union 1792 

Cotton gin invented by Eli Whitney 1793 

Wayne's campaign against the Indians 1793 

The Whisky insurrection 1794 

Jay's Treaty ratified 1795 

Tennessee admitted into the Union June 1, 1796 

Alien and Sedition Laws enacted 1798 

Death of Washington Dec. 14, 1799 

Capital established at Washington 1800 

War with Tripoli 1801-1805 

Ohio admitted into the Union Nov. 29, 1802 

Louisiana purchased 1803 

Aaron Burr's conspiracy 1806 

Berlin Decree issued 1806 

Fulton ascended the Hudson River, in the Clermont 1807 

Embargo Bill passed 1807 

Battle of Tippecanoe Nov. 7, 1811 

Louisiana admitted into the Union April 30, ?812 

War declared against England June 18, 1812 

Hull's surrender of Detroit Aug. 16, 1812 

The Guerri^re captured by the Constitution Aug. 19, 1812 

Perry's victory on Lake Erie Sept. 10, 1813 

Battle of Chippewa July 5, 1814 

Battle of Lundy's Lane July 25, 1814 

City of Washington burned by the British Aug. 24, 1814 

Treaty of peace signed at Ghent Dec. 24, 1814 

Battle of New Orleans Jan. 8, 1815 

War with Algiers 1815 




Copyright, 1891, by M. P. Rice. 



Abraham Lincoln. 
Born February 12, 1809 i died April 15, 1865. 



BOOK 11. 

DEVELOPMENT OP THE UNION. 



CHAPTER XIII. 



THE UNION AND ITS NEIGHBORS. 



Sem'i nole. 



Sabine (sa-ben'). 



120. The War of 1812, as it is commonly called, came at the 
end of a long period of warfare which had been carried on 
upon both sides of the Atlantic. In 1755, England and Erance 
began a contest which lasted, with short cessations from fight- 
ing, for sixty years. In 1815, the defeat of Napoleon Bona- 
parte at Waterloo ended the contest. America was closely 
connected with the long war, for it broke out on American 
soil. The first fight of seven years — the Erench and Indian 
War — left America in 1763 in the hands of Great Britain. 
When the English colonies fought for their independence, they 
drew the Erench into a fresh fight with England. This last 
war had grown out of the close connection which the United 
States had with Erance and England. The chief result of the 
war was to make the United States more independent of 
Europe. The long peace which now followed in Europe, last- 
ing till 1853, helped the United States to grow strong and 
self-reliant. 

121. Monroe's Administrations. — Eor a while there was an 
end to party strife. The Federalist party no longer had any 
strength. The opposition it had shown to the war made it 

261 



262 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 



very unpopular. Yet the Democratic-Eepublican party had 
abandoned some of its distinctive principles. It no longer 
stood for opposition to strong national assertion. When James 

Monroe^ was elected 
in 1816 to succeed 
Madison, there were 
but thirty-four electo- 
ral votes cast for the 
opposing candidate ; 
when he was reelected 
four years later, there 
was but one vote cast 
against him. Thus the 
period of his admin- 
istration came to be 
known as the Era of 
Good Feeling. 

122. The Great Lakes 
as a Bond of Peace. — 
The Union of eight- 
een States had a great 
country which it was 
to occupy. The bound- 
aries were not changed by the war. Its most important neigh- 
bor was England, with its Canadian possessions on the north. 




James Monroe. 



1 James Monroe was born in Westmoreland County, Virginia, April 28, 
1758. He was a student at William and Mary College, but the war broke 
up his studies ; he entered the army as lieutenant in 1776 and rose to be 
lieutenant colonel. He made Jefferson's acquaintance when that brilliant 
leader was governor of Virginia, and was pushed forward by him into various 
positions of influence. He took part in the State convention which adopted 
the Federal Constitution, and was senator from his State from 1790 to 1794. 
When Washington sent the Federalist Jay to England, he sent the anti- 
Federalist Monroe to France. On his return he was governor of Virginia for 
three years. Then Jefferson sent him to France to negotiate the treaty which 
led to the purchase of Louisiana. He was Secretary of State under Madison 
and for a while acting Secretary of War. He retired to private life after 
serving as President for two terms, and died in New York, July 4, 1831. 



THE UNION AND ITS NEIGHBORS. 263 

The chief theater of war had been on and about the Great 
Lakes separating the two nations, and with a foresight rarely 
seen in national relations, the two countries entered 
upon an agreement by which each power was to keep ^f^^ ^^' 
only one naval vessel on Lake Ontario, two on the 
Upper Lakes, and one on Lake Champlain ; and these vessels 
were not to be larger than one hundred tons' burden, and were 
to be armed each with only one eighteen-pound cannon. It is 
not easy to overestimate the value of this ]3rovision in keeping 
the peace between the two countries. 

123. Dealings with Spain and the Indian Tribes. — Spain was 
another neighbor, possessing Florida on the south, and Mexico 
on the southwest. She also claimed all the western coast of 
North America, as far north as the British possessions. But 
England and Spain were not the only foreign neighbors of the 
United States. Within the boundaries of the country were 
peoples who made treaties with the United States, just as did 
foreign nations like England, France, or Spain. 

The United States acted toward the Indians who lived 
within its territory as it acted toward the English or the 
Spaniards who occupied land lying outside of its territory. 
That is, the United States did not deal with each separate 
Englishman who owned a strip of land in Canada, or with each 
separate Spaniard who owned a bit of Florida ; it dealt with 
the nation of Great Britain, or the nation of Spain. When 
the United States bought Louisiana, it bought it of France, 
and not of the different French or Spanish people who owned 
plantations in Louisiana. Thus, when it came to deal with 
the Indians, it did not deal with each separate Indian. 

But though there were many Indians in the country, there 
was no general Indian nation with a government. There 
were separate Indian tribes, and it was with each of these 
tribes that the United States had dealings. Each tribe had 
a tract of country over which it roved. Here were its hunt- 
ing grounds, and here its few fields which the women planted 
and harvested from year to year. A bark hut was the most 



264 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 

lasting building. When the game was gone from one place, 
the Indians moved to another. It was not easy to say what 
were the exact boundaries of the country occupied by each 
tribe. The whites, as they cleared away the woods and 
planted their farms, were quite sure to be taking possession 
of land which the Indians claimed as their own. 

Indian Wars. — The pioneer whites were thus constantly 
getting into trouble with the Indians. When fighting be- 
came general, the United States, or the State in which the 
trouble occurred, was called upon to defend the whites, and 
an Indian war followed. The Indians were certain to be de- 
feated, and then the United States would make a treaty with 
the tribe, buy the land which had been fought about, and com- 
pel the Indians to move farther away. Thus, in 1814, as we 
have seen, when the country was in arms against Great 
Britain, there was a fight going on with the Creek Indians 
in Georgia and Alabama. The end of it was that the Creeks 
were obliged to give up a large portion of their territory and 
move West. Many of them, however, still remained, and there 
was bitter feeling between them and the settlers. 

124. Jackson in Florida. — The difficulty was greater because 
the country in dispute lay next to the Spanish possessions in 
Florida. These possessions had but few Spanish villages or 
plantations. A tribe of Indians, the Seminoles, was scattered 
over the peninsula. Many Seminoles had been driven out of 
the Southern colonies before the War for Independence. Now 
it was an easy matter for slaves in Georgia and Alabama, when 
they ran away from their masters, to plunge into the thickets 
and swamps of Florida. The Creeks and Seminoles were 
always ready to help them. A border war sprang up, in which 
the whites were constantly crossing the Florida line to recap- 
ture slaves or to fight the Indians. 

General Andrew Jackson ^ was placed in command of an ex- 

1 We have already met Jackson in the account of the War of 1812. He 
was born of north of Ireland stock March 15, 1767, in the Waxhaw settle- 
ment on the border between North and South Carolina. He had so little 



THE UNION AND ITS NEIGHBORS, 265 

pedition in 1817, with instructions to carry on a campaign 
against the Seminoles. He was permitted to pursue them, if 
necessary, into Florida, but was not to attaclc any Spanisli fort 
should the Indians take refuge in it. The government justi- 
fied this entrance upon Spanish soil on the ground that Spain 
had disregarded treaty obligations in permitting the Indians 
to make raids into United States territory. Jackson was not a 
cautious man. He entered Florida, seized Indians and Avhite 
traders, and hung men without a regular trial. He took 
possession of Spanish forts and built a fort of his own. So 
popular was he, however, and so eager were his friends and 
neighbors to get possession of Florida, that instead of being 
reproved by Congress he was regarded as a great hero. 

125. Spain cedes Florida. — While he was thus really car- 
rying on a war with the authorities in Florida, the govern- 
ment at Washington was trying to remove all difficulties by 
persuading Spain to sell Florida. Spain protested against 
Jackson's conduct ; but the kingdom was weak, and in no con- 
dition to go to war with the United States. After long bar- 
gaining, Spain made a treaty with the United States, giving 
up all claims to any territory east of the Mississippi River. 
West of the Mississippi, the Sabine Eiver was to be the 

schooling that he never learned in the course of his life to write English cor- 
rectly, but at the age of eighteen he began to study law. He was a rollick- 
ing, mischievous fellow, delighting in cock fighting, horse racing, and all the 
rougher sports of a wild community, but he had a native delicacy of nature 
which made him reverence women and pay them always involuntary homage. 
In 1788 he was appointed public prosecutor for that part of North Carolina 
which afterward became Tennessee. He went to what was then the frontier, 
and showed himself a man of splendid courage both in carrying out the law 
and in the conflict between the whites and the Indians. He took part in 
framing the constitution of Tennessee, and when the State was admitted to 
the Union he was its first representative in Congress. He served a brief term 
as senator, and was made judge of the supreme court of Tennessee. From 
1801 he was commander-in-chief of the Tennessee militia, and as has been 
seen took active part in the War of 1812. His career can be traced in this 
history. He died at his place called the Hermitage, near Nashville, June 8, 
1845. The fullest life is by James Parton. A briefer one is that by W. G. 
Sumner, in the American Statesmen series. This dwells at length on the 
financial questions which arose under his administration. 



266 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 

boundary with Mexico. She received in return from the 
United States five million dollars. The treaty was signed by 
the representatives of the two governments in 1819. 

126. Revolt of the Spanish Provinces. — The United States 
now controlled the entire seaboard from the St. Croix River on 
the northeast to the Sabine on the southwest ; and Congress 
expended large sums of money in fortifying the coast and 
inland frontier. It established navy yards and enlarged the 
navy. One sign of the strength which the Union possessed 
was in the influence which it had on its neighbors. The 
provinces of Spain in Mexico, Central America, and South 
America threw off the dominion of the mother country, and 
set up republics after the pattern of the United States. 

127. The Holy Alliance. — But the occasion soon came for an 
even more positive statement of the authority of the United 
States. There existed at this time a compact, called the Holy 
Alliance, between the great continental powers, Eussia, Aus- 
tria, and Prussia, the main purpose of which was to strengthen 
the position of the monarchies against the movements which 
looked toward republican government. The Holy Alliance met 
at Verona in Italy and discussed the question of aiding Spain 
to reestablish its authority over the American provinces that 
had revolted. 

Both England and the United States took alarm. It was 
generally believed, whether rightly or wrongly, that a plan 
was on foot by which Spain was again to have her American 
provinces, Mexico was to be given to France, and California to 
Russia ; that this plan was to be carried out by the Holy Alli- 
ance, Spain, France, and Russia. Russia had already, by an 
edict of the Czar, asserted a claim over all the Pacific coast of 
North America from Bering Strait to the fifty-first parallel of 
latitude. 

The first important notice taken by the United States was 
when the Secretary of State, John Quincy Adams (July 17, 
1823), declared to the Russian minister at Washington that 
" we should contest the right of Russia to any territorial estab- 



THE UNION AND ITS NEIGHBORS, 267 

lishment on this continentj and that we should assume distinctly 
the principle that the American continents are no longer sub- 
ject for any new European colonial establishments." 

128. The Monroe Doctrine. — The second notice was even more 
significant. Great Britain had no wish to see the continental 
powers securing authority in America, and the Minister of 
Foreign Affairs proposed to the United States minister in 
London that the two governments should unite in a joint 
declaration against the proposal of the Holy Alliance, Mr. 
Rush, the United States minister, had no instructions from his 
government, but he said he would agree to such a declaration 
if Great Britain would acknowledge the independence of the 
Spanish American provinces as the United States had already 
done. 

This the British government was not prepared to do. So 
there was no joint declaration ; but the two nations made sepa- 
rate declarations. President Monroe declared in a message to 
Congress that the United States would preserve a strict 
neutrality in the war between Spain and her provinces, 
but that when any province became independent, the United 
States would regard an attack upon it by a European power as 
an attack upon herself. This declaration has received the name 
of the Monroe Doctrine.^ It was meant to assert that the 
United States had so great an interest in the prosperity of the 
whole American continent, that it never would permit Europe 
to recover any foothold in America which it once had lost, or 
to wrest any territory from States there established. 

1 President Monroe's Message of 1823 is No. 56 of Old South Leaflets. 

QUESTIONS. 

How was the period of warfare between 1755 and 1815 divided ? 
What was the length of peace in Europe after 1815 ? How were the 
political parties in Monroe's administration divided ? Name the agree- 
ment between the United States and Great Britain regarding the policing 
of the Great Lakes, and state the effect upon the prosperity of the two 
countries bordering on the lakes. What possession did Spain have on 



263 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 

• 

the North American continent at this time ? What was the policy of the 
United States in the treatment of Indians ? What was the result of the 
Creek War ? Narrate Jackson's movements in Florida. What did Spain 
give up in selling Florida ? When did the Spanish provinces in America 
become independent ? What was the Holy Alliance ? What is the 
Monroe Doctrine ? 

SEARCH QUESTIONS. 

What became of the Creek Indians ? Who went West ? What were 
the terms in which the Holy Alliance announced its purpose ? Why did 
it call itself Holy Alliance ? On what occasion has the Monroe Doctrine 
been officially asserted by the United States ? How does the American 
tonnage on the Great Lakes compare with the American tonnage on the 
ocean ? 

SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. 

Compositions : 

A comparison of the commerce on the Great Lakes with that on tlie 
Atlantic. 

An account of the Seminole Indians. 

The Adams family of Massachusetts. 

The boyhood of General Jackson. 

Debates : 

Mesolved, That there would be less danger of war if nations had armies 
and navies no larger than were required for police service. 

Eesolved, That the Creek Indians were justified in fighting the Ameri- 
cans in 1814. 

Resolved, That the Indians in the Southern States were well treated 
by the Americans. 

Hesolved, That European nations need not respect the Monroe Doc- 
trine. 



i 



CHAPTER XIV. 



INTERNAL DEVELOPMENT. 



Tar'iff. A list of duties laid by 
government on goods imported 
into the country. A protective 
tariff is one which is laid for the 
purpose of protecting the indus- 
tries of the country from foreign 
competition, and of encouraging 
the home production of similar 
goods. 



Appalachian (ap'pa-la'chi-an). 
The name applied to the moun- 
tain range of which the Alleghany 
Mountains are the principal 
members. 

Anthracite (an'thra-sit). Hard 
coal, such as is used in stoves. 



129. New Inventions — At the close of the War of 1812, the 
people of the United. States lived mainly by farming and trade ; 
the articles not made on the farm or in the house were bought 
in the^ stores, and the merchants obtained them from Europe. 
But life in a new country like the United States was different 
from what it was in Europe. The farmers, the lumbermen, the 
mechanics, often found in their work that the English manu- 
facturers did not understand just what was needed. Ameri- 
cans therefore were constantly contriving new machines and 
tools to do the work required.^ Besides this, there were fewer 
men to do any piece of work than in England. Whenever in 
the United States a machine could be contrived to do the work 
of twenty men, it was eagerly adopted because the twenty men 
were not to be had. There was not a multitude of laborers 
seeking employment, as in England, 

The Patent Office. — This was especially the case in farming. 
The broad fields of the West were very fruitful ; but the farmer 
who owned a great tract could not find men enough to help him 



1 The first step was to increase greatly the use of horse power. 
269 



270 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 

cultivate the fields after the old fashion. He set his wits to 
work to invent machines which should do the work of men, 
should prepare the ground, sow the seed, and reap the crop. 
Since 1790, the government has granted patents to inventors. 
There were not many granted before the War of 1812, but after 
that the number increased rapidly. In 1836, the Patent Office 
was made a distinct bureau under the Secretary of State, and a 
Commissioner of Patents was appointed to be at its head. 

130. The Rise of Manufactures The great European con- 
flict had been the opportunity of American shipping, and even 
during the War of 1812 there had been great activity in com- 
merce. But when Europe was at peace, the carrying trade 
returned to the ships of Europe, and there was a great falling 
off in American shipping. Partly in consequence of this the 
energy and money which had gone into commerce, especially 
in New England, began to be turned into the channel of manu- 
facture. There were other causes at work. 

The War of 1812 shut the country off largely from European 
goods, and thus indirectly stimulated home manufacture. 
Then, not only did the war cost the government heavily, but 
the income from taxes upon imported goods fell off as com- 
merce declined. When peace came, and goods began to come 
in again with a rush. Congress increased the duties on these 
goods, enacting what is called a Protective Tariff. It did this 
for two reasons, — to secure greater revenues for the govern- 
ment, and to encourage the manufacture of a similar class of 
goods in this country. 

131. The Protective Tariff There was nothing new in the 

principle of the protective tariff. ' Hamilton had urged it at 
the beginning of the government, and it was the method used 
by all countries for the protection of their own industries. 
But the tariff of 1816 in the United States came at a time 
when it had a marked effect in the history of the people. If 
the United States could manufacture its own goods from its 
own products, and sell them to its own citizens, then one part 
of the country would help another, and the whole Union would 



INTERNAL DEVELOPMENT, 



271 



prosper together. Thus the tariff fell into its place as one of 
the plans adopted by the country when it settled down to the 
work of possessing the land and improving it. 

132. Manufacturing Towns. — The few manufactories which 
had been started during the period when America was break- 
ing away from Europe now began to thrive, and new ones were 
established. This was especially true in New England, where 

the rivers which came 

down from the hill coun- 
try afforded good water 
power. The rise of man- 
ufacturing towns on the 
banks of these rivers 
changed the old New 
England life.^ It brought 
people together from dif- 
ferent places ; there was 
more travel. The young 
read more and talked 
more with one another; 
they had societies and 
saw one another more 
frequently ; they had 
magazines and papers 
for which they wrote. 
The American literature 
we now know so well 
had already been begun, 
for Bryant was writing his early poems. It does not at all 
follow that people stopped buying English and French goods ; 
but every year there was more business in making, buying, 
and selling American goods. As people grew richer, they con- 
tinued to get from England and France the better class of 




William Cullen Bryant. 
Born Nov. 3, 1794) died June 12, 1878. 



1 The time of the book is later than this, but A New England Girlhood, by 
Lucy Larcom, contains a most interesting and striking picture of life in 
Lowell, when the country girls were flocking to the manufacturing towns. 



272 DEVELOPMENT Of THE UNION. 

goods, while American manufacturers were constantly en- 
deavoring to make their own products better, and thus to get 
the trade of their countrymen. 

133. The United States Bank and Internal Improvements In 

order to aid the business men in their dealings with one an- 
other. Congress gave a new charter for twenty years to the 

United States Bank. This act shows how the old 
party lines of Federalist and Anti-Federalist had dis- 
appeared, but there was a more significant mark of the disap- 
pearance of old divisions. Congress proposed that public 
money should be expended on internal improvements, in build- 
ing roads, improving navigation, and deepening harbors. This 
was in direct opposition to the early doctrine of the National 
Republican party, but Jefferson had made the new policy 
popular by using the public money for buying a vast tract of 
land when he accepted the Louisiana Purchase. During Man- 
roe's administration more than a million dollars — a large sum 
in those days — was spent by government in building a na- 
tional road from Cumberland, in Maryland, to Wheeling, on 
the Ohio. 

134. The Erie Canal. — The people did not wait for the gen- 
eral government, and indeed there were many who thought 
government should not spend the public money in this way. 
Sometimes private companies and sometimes the State built 
roads and canals, on which tolls were paid by those who used 
them. The greatest of these public works is the Erie Canal, 
which owes its execution chiefly to the energetic governor of 
New York, De Witt Clinton. It was begun in 1817, and 
opened for traffic in 1825.^ It extends across the State from 
Lake Erie to the Hudson Eiver, and is longer than any other 
canal in America or Europe. For many years the Erie Canal 
was the chief means by which the produce of the country 
bordering on the Great Lakes, and of the rich farms in the 

1 This was before the days of telegraphing, and the news of completion was 
communicated from Buffalo to New York in eighty minutes by a succession 
of cannon discharges. 



INTERNAL DEVELOPMENT. 



273 



Mohawk Valley, was carried to the sea. It was one of the 
great means by which the city of New York became the chief 
commercial city of the New World.^ 

135. Steamboats and Railroads In 1807 an American in- 
ventor, Eobert Fulton, had constructed the first really success- 
ful steamboat. Its first trip up the Hudson River awakened 
great interest and showed clearly the possibility of steam navi- 
gation. This was be- 
fore the locomotive had 
been perfected, so that 
steam railroads were 
not yet in operation. 
Steamboats, however, 
were already beginning 
to ply on rivers and 
lakes. Just 
after the Erie ^^^"• 
Canal was begun, a 
steamboat was built 
which was the first to 
navigate Lake Erie. 
The next year a still 
more important step 
was taken. The steamer 
Savannah crossed the 
Atlantic, went as far as 
St. Petersburg, and re- 
turned. Six years later, when the Erie Canal was finished, 
the steamer Enterprise went from America to India i«iq 
by way of the Cape of Good Hope. Thus the begin- 
ning of steam navigation for America had been made. 

The First Railroad. — A year after the Enterprise sailed for 
India, the first railroad in the United States was opened in 
Massachusetts, from the Quincy quarries to tide water. It was 

1 In 1882 the people of New York by a large majority voted to abolish all 
tolls on canals in the State. 
T 




Robert Fulton. Born 1765 1 died 1815. 



274 DEVELOPMENT OF TUE UNION. 

only two miles long, and was used for hauling granite ; the cars 
were drawn by horses. It was the first use of rails in America. 
In 1830 the first passenger railway in America was opened. It 
extended westward from Baltimore about fifteen miles, and now 
forms a part of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. The cars 
were at first drawn by horses, but a locomotive was used the 
next year. Its first locomotive was built by Peter Cooper, who 
made later the generous and useful gift of the Cooper Union ^ 
to the city of New York. Now began the construction of rail- 




The First PasseDger Locomotive built in the United States. 

roads in various directions ; in the next twenty years nearly 
ten thousand miles of road were built. This mileage has con- 
stantly been increased, until in 1900 there were in operation in 
the United States nearly one hundred and ninety thousand 
miles of railway. 

136. The great coal and iron regions lying in the Appalachian 
range began to yield their riches. Charcoal was formerly 
used in smelting iron, but in 1820 the Pennsylvania iron 
workers began to make experiments in mixing anthracite 

1 A well-equipped building, the center of activity in educational work, with 
reading rooms, library, and a hall for great public meetings. 



INTERNAL DEVELOPMENT. 



275 



coal with charcoal. When it was at last found that anthracite 
coal could be used alone, the manufacture of iron increased 
with great rapidity. The coal was close by the iron 
ore ; and both coal and iron were so near the Atlantic 
seaboard that it cost little to get the product of mines to ports 
and then to ship it to points up and down the coast. 




iiiit<i. — -"" 



m mM 



^^^*^^v...-»^l»"lw^ul,.u. aMJL iiiii ii;!.,i.jjii ., ' iM 



A Western Emigrant Train. 

137. The Occupation of the West. — With every year the line 
of settlements was pushed farther westward. Along the great 
highways, and by trails across the prairies, one might see long 
emigrant trains. Covered wagons contained the family goods 
and carried the women and children ; the men marched behind 
or rode on horseback ; they drove the sheep and cattle which 
they were taking to the new homes. These emigrants often 
formed large parties for better protection against Indians and 
wild beasts. They camped at night by streams of water when 



276 DEVELOPMENT OF TEE UNION. 

they could. They built their camp fires and kept guard all 
night, for they could hear the howling of wolves and some- 
times see Indians stealing toward them. As they moved on, 
they would meet men and wagons coming from the opposite 
direction. Already the great West was sending back produce 
and droves of cattle and pigs to the Eastern markets. 

New States. — The rapid growth of the Union may be seen 
from the fact that for six years after the close of the War of 
1812 a new State was added each year. Indiana was added in 
1816, Mississippi in 1817, Illinois in 1818, Alabama in 1819, 
Maine in 1820, and Missouri in 1821. When Indiana was 
admitted to the Union, the question which most deeply con- 
cerned the people of the territory was that of slavery.^ The 
decision made Indiana a free State, but from this time forward 
the slavery question was a great national question, and it be- 
comes necessary to stop a moment and consider what slavery 
in the United States meant. 

1 The story of the struggle in Indiana is well told in the volume of that 
name in American Commonwealths series by J. P. Dunn, Jr. Mr. Dunn also re- 
counts the early history of the State. The territory occupied was first visited 
by La Salle in 1G79, and posts were established by the French near Lafayette 
and at Viucennes. Colonel Clark carried on some of his operations there, and 
the country was included in the Virginia and other acts of cession to the 
United States after the war for independence. It formed a part of the North- 
west Territory which was created in 1787. In 1800 Indiana territory was 
formed, consisting of the present States of Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and 
part of Michigan, with Vinceunes as the seat of government. Illinois terri- 
tory was set off from it in 1809. It was the scene of many fights with the 
Indians in its early history. 

QUESTIONS. 

What made the conditions of labor in the United States to differ from 
those in Europe ? What stimulated invention ? When was the patent 
office created ? What led to the investment of capital in manufactures ? 
What is a protective tariff ? What was the effect of the tariff of 1816 ? 
How did the rise of manufactures affect town life ? When was the 
United States Bank originally established, and when was its charter ex- 
tended ? What was the policy of the government respecting internal im- 
provements ? How did the political parties stand on this matter ? What 



INTERNAL BEVF.LOPMENT. 277 

was the course of State action ? What is said of the Erie Canal ? When 
did Fulton make his experiments ? What was the early history of steani 
navigation in America ? Narrate the incidents connected with the hc- 
ginning of railroads in America. Where were coal and iron first mined ? 
Describe the movement westward. Name in order the States added after 
the War of 1812. 

SEARCH QUESTIONS. 

What is the process by which a patent is secured ? What is the mean- 
ing of the term "A tariff for revenue, with incidental protection"? 
What is meant by free trade ? What are the conditions necessary for 
the admission of a State into the Union ? How is the President elected 
if there is no election by the electoral college ? 



SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. 

Compositions : 

A description of Fulton's steamboat and its first journey. 

A description of a Western emigrant train. 

Life on a canal boat. 

Story of a tow boy. 

An account of Lafayette's visit to the United States in 1824. 

How a patent is secured on an invention. 

DEnATES : 

JResolved, That the United States should maintain a protective tariff. 

Besolved, That public improvements should be made by private enter- 
prise. 

Eesolved, That a machine which does the work of twenty men keeps 
twenty men out of work. 

liesolved, That patents should not be granted to inventors. 



CHAPTER XV. 

THE SYSTEM OF SLAVERY. 

Compromise (kom'pro-miz). An agreement between two parties in a 
dispute by which each gives up a part of what he demands. 

138. The North and the South The country occupied by the 

United States stretched from a region in the North, where 
there were long, cold winters and short summers, to a land in 
the South, where winter meant only a few weeks of rest 
between the gathering of one crop and the planting of the 
next. In the North were grass land, and wheat and corn 
fields ; in the South, tobacco, cotton, rice, and sugar plantations. 
The people who lived at the two extremes had come originally 
from the same English stock. But their ways of living ever 
since they had occupied the coimtry were so different that 
now the people of the Southern States seemed to many trav- 
elers almost another people from those occupying the Northern 
States. This difference was owing chiefly to the fact that in 
the South the great body of laborers was composed of African 
slaves, owned and directed in their work by white men. Ex- 
cept in some of the mountain regions, the white man and the 
black rarely worked together. Everywhere it was the black 
man or woman who did the work of the hand. 

139. The Growth of the System of Slavery. — In the early years 
of the Eepublic many of the wisest men in the South were 
eager to get rid of slavery. All but three of the thirteen 
States which had made the Confederation forbade the importa- 
tion of slaves. These three were North Carolina, South Caro- 
lina, and Georgia ; and these insisted, when the Constitution 
was framed, that the right to import slaves should continue 

278 



THE SYSTEM OF SLAVERY. 279 

till 1808. But though it became illegal to import slaves from 
Africa or other countries, it was permitted to sell them from 
one State to another. 

All children born of slave mothers became slaves, and the 
property of the master of the mother. The more slaves a man 
had, the richer he was thought to be ; and the number of slaves 
in the country increased rapidly, especially after the invention 
of the cotton gin. Thus there came gradually a change in the 
opinion of the people of the South. A few had freed their 
slaves, and a few slaves had bought their freedom by working 
for others in the extra time which their masters gave them. 
But while Jefferson and many others had deplored the system 
of slavery, most of the people now accepted it as right and 
desirable. 

They were used to it. It freed them from the necessity of 
working with their hands. It gave them leisure to come and 
go among their friends. It gave them a sense of power ; they 
were rulers over men ; they gave orders and were obeyed. 
They thought also that they were growing rich as they saw 
their gangs of sla,ves tilling the fields without wages. The 
masters cared for their slaves.^ They gave them clothing, and 
houses, and gardens in which to raise vegetables. They 
amused themselves with the little children, who grew up in 
play with their own families. They took care of them when 
they were sick and old. 

They encouraged the slaves also in going to church and 
religious meetings, and frequently gave them religious instruc- 
tion. But they carefully kept books and papers out of the 
hands of the blacks. They did not think it wise to give them 
schools. They treated them, so far as education went, like 
little children who were never to grow np. Why, they asked, 
should the negro learn to read and write and keep accounts ? 

1 A very interesting inside view of the relations subsisting between slaves 
and their masters will be found in Mrs. Smede's Memorials of a Southern- 
Planter y though the time covered by it is later for the most part than that of 
which we are now treating. 



280 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION, 

• 
He was not to be in business for himself ; he could not vote ; 
he could not testify in courts of law ; he was not a citizen of 
the State. To be most useful to his master, he must be con- 
tented. If he began to care for what his master and other 
freemen had, he might himself try to break away from slavery. 

For the most part, the slaves were an idle, easy-going people. 
They were affectionate and warmly attached to their masters 
and mistresses if these were kind to them. They had little 
thought of anything beyond eating and sleeping and playing. 
They had their holidays, and when Christmas came, they flocked 
to the great house to receive their presents. 

140. The Economical Aspect of Slavery — It was a mistake to 
think that the South was really prospering by means of slavery. 
A few planters were rich ; they had large estates and a great 
body of servants, but as a whole the country was not growing 
richer; everywhere there was waste. Instead of intelligent 
men working hard with their hands and their heads, improving 
the land, and getting larger crops to the acre, there was a race 
of ignorant laborers who worked as little as they could. They 
had nothing to gain by industry and economy. They laid by 
nothing, for they expected to be taken care of by their masters. 

The South did not see that it was becoming relatively poorer.^ 
It saw that it had more slaves every year, and must find a 
place for them. It perceived, also, that the North was in- 
creasing more rapidly in population ; the Northwest was filling 
up faster than the Southwest. It was to meet the original 
disproportion in free population that the Constitution provided 
(see Article 1, Section 2), that in apportioning the representa- 
tives the slaves should be counted as three fifths of the actual 
number.^ The non-slaveholding States were growing actually 
and relatively more powerful every year. 

1 Among the most instructive narratives respecting the agricultural and 
social conditions of the South are the several volumes of travel by Frederick 
Law Olmsted. His journeys, indeed, were made at a later period, but they 
.record conditions which had long been fixed. 

2 It was James Madison who proposed this mode. He was a strong advocate 
of the principle that representation under the new government should be 



THE SYSTEM OF SLAVERY. 281 

141. The Relations between the South and the North as regards 
Slavery. — The increasing prosperity of the free States was a 
constant menace to the slave States, for it seemed to say that 
States where labor is free have an immense advantage over 
States where labor is enslaved. The South began to fear that, 
as time went on, the free States might control the Union, 
and then might even undertake to get rid of slavery. The 
States in which slavery existed were held together by this 
fact ; it gave them an interest in common which the other 
States had not. All were States of the Union, but the Southern 
States were also slave States. They were ready to act together 
whenever the system which was so important to them seemed 
to be in danger. 

There always was danger. Although there was often a 
strong attachment between the slaves and their masters, the 
laws of the slave States showed how little the masters trusted 
their slaves. These laws were very stringent; the life as well 
as the liberty of the slave was in the power of the master. 
Many slaves ran away into the swamps of Florida, Virginia, 
and Alabama ; or they escaped to the free States, where they 
hid in cities or found friends among those who disliked slavery. 
When they were ill-treated, they would sometimes revenge 
themselves on their masters. More than once they attempted 
insurrection.^ 

The greatest danger to slavery was in the growing belief 
that slavery is wrong, and that the nation ought not to per- 
mit men and women to be owned by others, to be bought and 
sold, and to have no other rights than those which belong to 
horses and oxen. But slavery existed, under the Constitution, 

based on population and not on States. There were two theories about the 
slaves, one that they were to be counted as persons, the other that they should 
be reckoned as property. The compromise proposed by Madison was intended 
to reconcile these theories in practice. It is not too much to say that without 
some such compromise the Constitution could not have been adopted. 

1 The most noted of these insurrections was that of Nat Turner in Virginia 
in 1831. Mrs. Stowe based on it her novel, Dred: A Tale of the Dismal 
Swamp. 



282 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 

and the States where it did not exist were not at first disposed 
to interfere. They said that slavery was an affair of the States 
in which it was found. For the most part, they were too busy 
with their growing industries to care about a matter which they 
said did not belong to them. 

Besides, the Northern States were now engaged in a great 
variety of enterprises, while the Southern States were still 
chiefly employed in the few agricultural industries of tobacco, 
cotton, rice, and sugar. The South thus looked to the North 
for clothing, tools, much of the food, and most of the luxuries 
of life. The merchants of the North found a great market in 
the South for the sale of their goods ; they did not want any- 
thing to disturb it, for they needed cotton from the South to 
keep their mills running. 

Families from the different sections intermarried. Visitors 
passed from South to North and from North to South. The 
churches had their members and associations in both parts of 
the country. So most people agreed to let slavery alone ; and 
many at the North persuaded themselves, and tried to persuade 
others, that it was not so bad a thing after all. 

142. The Missouri Compromise — When the Territories of 
the West applied for admission to the Union as States, those 
which were north of the Ohio Eiver came in as free States. 
Not only were they settled largely by emigrants from the older 
free States, but the Ordinance of 1787 forever excluded slavery 
from the Northwest Territory; although, as we have seen, 
slave holders did get a footing there, in Indiana especially.^ 

1 It was not Indiana alone that was subject to dispute over the question of 
slavery. The contest was keen in Illinois. That State, which took its name 
from the French rendering of the name used by the tribe of Indians found 
there, was very early visited by the French. (See above, Introduction, 23). 
By the Treaty of Paris in 1763 the country of the Illinois was ceded by France 
to England. Virginia and Connecticut claimed the country under their patents, 
but yielded it with other lands to the United States, and it became a part of 
the Northwest Territory. When, in 1800, Ohio was set off, and the rest of the 
territory was created Indiana territory, Illinois was included, but in 1809 it 
was constituted a distinct territory. The State was rapidly populated, much 
impulse being given by the important lead mines near Galena. In the eager- 



THE SYSTEM OF SLAVERY. 283 

But when the Mississippi was crossed, and settlements began 
to be made in the great territory originally called Louisiana, 
the question arose whether the States made from it were to be 
slave or free. 

The first discussion was over the admission of the territory 
of Missouri as a State.^ It belonged to Congress to decide this 
question. Members fr®m the free States said that Missouri 
should not come in except under laws which forbade slavery. 
They were opposed by the members from the slave States, and 
the debate occupied two sessions of Congress. At last an 
agreement was reached, called the Missouri Compromise. By 
this, slavery was to be permitted in Missouri, but was pro- 
hibited forever in all other territory west of the Mis- 
sissippi north of 36° 30', the southern boundary of 
Missouri. This result was largely brought about by Henry 
Clay, who was speaker of the House. One of the effects of 
the controversy had been to delay the admission of Maine, 

ness of new enterprises the State ran up a heavy debt, and in 1842 the gov- 
ernor, in a message to the Legislature, declared that the State had not credit 
or money to buy a pound of candles. It was a time of great depression, but 
five years later the people showed their honesty, their courage, and their reso- 
lution by subjecting themselves to a heavy tax. The marvellous growth of 
its chief city Chicago is seen in the contrast exhibited by its twelve families 
clustered about Fort Dearborn in 1831 and the great exhibition of 1893. The 
State was the home of both Lincoln and Grant. 

1 The Missouri River, which gives its name to the State, is the Great Muddy 
River. It brings down so much mud from the Rocky Mountains, that after 
its junction with the clearer Mississippi the common stream becomes of a 
coffee color. In 1673 Marquette and Joliet passed down the river bordering 
the country now occupied by the State. The country was at different times 
under French and Spanish authority. It was a part of the Louisiana pur- 
chase, and at first called the district of Louisiana, and then the territory of 
Louisiana. In 1812 the name was changed to the territory of Missouri. 
"When St. Louis came into the possession of the United States, in 1804, there 
were only two American inhabitants of the place, and less than a thousand 
persons in all, chiefly French and Spanish. In 1890 the population was over 
450,000. St. Louis was long the great center for trade with the Indians in the 
West, and traders and Indians flocked there from regions as remote as Oregon. 
Eads's great tubular steel bridge across the Mississippi, seven years building, 
was completed in 1874. For a history of Missouri see a volume by Lucien 
Carr in the Ame7'ica7i- Commomvealths series. 



284 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 




John Quincy Adams. Born July 11, 1767) died Feb. 23, 1848. 

which wished to be set off from Massachusetts.^ The Southern 
members had refused to admit Maine until it should be agreed 

1 The name of Maine was early used for the mainland of that portion of 
New England. As early as 1607 an English settlement was made at the mouth 
of the Kennebec River. In the Introduction, 42, some account of the early 
occupation will be found. There was a dispute about the proper authority 
over the country, and in 1677 Massachusetts, to perfect her title, bought the 
right and claims to the territory from the heirs of Sir Ferdinando Gorges. In 
178.3 the treaty of peace recognized Maine as a part of Massachusetts, and 
until it became a State it was known as the district of Maine. For a long 



J 



> 



THE SYSTEM OF SLAVERY. 285 

to admit Missouri as a slave State. The great debate showed 
clearly that the South was very much in earnest, and that it 
was united in defense of slavery. 

143. Administration of John Quincy Adams. — The debate 
over the admission of Missouri came in the administration 
of James Monroe. He was succeeded by John Quincy Adams, 
who had grown up in the service of government. When John 
Adams was sent as commissioner to France in 1778, he took 
his son, John Quincy Adams, with him, and even sent him as 
secretary of an embassy to Russia when he was but fifteen 
years old. He was appointed minister successively to the 
Netherlands, to Portugal, and to Russia. He was a United 
States senator, and in 1814 he was one of the commissioners 
who negotiated the treaty of Ghent. Shortly after he was 
made minister to Great Britain, and when Monroe became 
President he appointed John Quincy Adams Secretary of State. 
The election of 1824 was not decided by popular vote, and 
when Adams was chosen by the House of Representatives, he 
went into office under bitter opposition, and the measures 
which he proposed were generally defeated. A striking event 
occurred during his administration, when, on the 4th of July, 
1826, just lifty years after the Declaration of Independence, Jolm 
Adams and Jefferson died within a few hours of each other. 

144. State Sovereignty. — The people of the slave States were 
strong supporters of the doctrine that the States were independ- 
ent of one another and of the Federal government ; that each 
was a sovereign State. The doctrine had been held from the 
beginning of the Union. It was felt that the power of the 
State was a protection against too great a power in the central 
government. This doctrine was used with special force by 
the people of the South, under the leadership of John C. 
Calhoun, of South Carolina. It was a safeguard for slavery, 
and was held so passionately that the State was put before 

time the exact line of separation from Canada was a subject of dispute, and 
in 1837-1839 there was a good deal of local disturbance known as the Aroos- 
took War. The difficulty was adjusted by treaty in 1842. 



2^^^ 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 




John Caldwell Calhoun.^ 

1 John Caldwell Calhoun, who had so powerful an influence in formulating 
Southern political doctrines, was born March 18, 1782, in Abbeville district, S.C. 
He was of the same sturdy race as Jackson, but unlike Jackson he was a man 
of scholarly habits and cultivated tastes. He was graduated at Yale in 1806, 
and entered the House of Representatives in 1811. A man of great simplicity 
of manner, he was also very strict in character, and possessed of a remarkably 
logical and analytical mind. He had a genius for organization, and as Secre- 
tary of War under Monroe he left a strong impress on the department, which 
remains much as he organized it. He was elected Vice-President in 1824, but 
resigned to become senator from his State in 1832, when he led the forces of 
State sovereignty. He died in Washington, March 31, 1850. Dr. Von Hoist 
has traced his career in one of the volumes of American Statesmen. 



THE SYSTEM OF SLAVERY. 287 

the Union. " I am a Georgian," one would say, or " I am a 
South Carolinian," before he would say " I am an American." 

The Union and a State came into sharp opposition in the 
case of the half-civilized Indians still remaining in Georgia. 
The State wished to get rid of them and take possession of 
their lands. But they held these lands under treaty with the 
United States, and appealed to the general government. John 
Quincy Adams was President, and attempted to maintain the 
rights of the Indians. The governor of Georgia called out the 
State troops to resist the United States troops ; Congress, with 
whom Adams was very unpopular, took sides with Georgia. 
The State prevailed, and the doctrine of State Sovereignty was 
more firmly held than ever. 

QUESTIONS. 

What was the difference in life between the North and South ? To 
what was the difference mainly due ? How did the founders of the Union 
regard slavery ? What action was early taken regarding the trade in 
slaves ? Describe the general condition of slaves and their masters. 
What was the effect of slavery on wealth ? How were slaves counted in 
the representation ? How did slavery affect the slave States in their rela- 
tion to each other ? How did the North look upon slavery ? What part 
did slavery play in the admission of new States ? Explain the Missouri 
Compromise. Narrate the career of John Quincy Adams. What effect 
did the doctrine of State sovereignty have in the South ? How did it 
operate in the case of the Georgia Indians ? 

SEARCH QUESTIONS. 

What were some of Jefferson's expressions about slavery ? What 
special legislation indicated the attitude taken by the founders of the 
Union toward slavery ? When did Lafayette revisit this country ? 

SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. 

Compositions : 

The adventures of a slave escaping to the Dismal Swamp. 
A possum hunt. 

Debate : 

Resolved, That the compromise by which the slaves were counted on 
the three-fifths ratio was a sound piece of politics. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

ADMINISTRATION OF ANDREW JACKSON. 
Null. Of no force in law. Void. Empty. Null and void is a legal term. 

145. The election of Andrew Jackson to the Presidency in 1829 
was the sign of a change which had come over the American 
people. They had come to believe in themselves and to hold 
fast by the doctrine, that the will of the majority is law. 
Not only in politics, but in church life and in business, this 
principle was firmly established and put in practice. Further- 
more, the cheapness of land and the ease with which one could 
change his home and his occupation, if he was not satisfied, led 
to constant movement and activity. There was nothing to pre- 
vent one with industry and energy from making his way and 
bettering his condition. Even money was not greatly needed, 
since those who had it lent it to those who had it not, in confi- 
dence that the borrower would quickly make it earn good 
interest. All this not only gave courage and self-reliance, so 
that the common phrase was " Every man is as good as his 
neighbor," but it gave the whole people a hearty belief in the 
Union. 

Causes of Jackson's Popularity. — In Europe one class of men 
was looked u}) to as having a right to govern. It was only 
gradually that this idea faded out in America, where every 
freeman had a vote. It faded out most quickly in the newer 
parts of the country, where, from necessity, all were very 
much on the same footing. Heretofore the Presidents had 
been taken from a class of men who had been trained in the 
study of government, both at home and abroad. Now came 
Andrew Jackson, who had grown up on the frontier. He had 

288 



ADMINISTRATION OF ANDREW JACKSON. 289 

l)eon known chiefly as a brave man who had defeated the Brit- 
ish at New Orleans and had carried on successful campaigns 
against the Indians. He was a man of strong willj who loved 
his friends and hated his enemies. He was greatly admired 
by the people, because, unlike most public men, he seemed not 
to belong to a separate class, but to be one of themselves. 

146. The Two Great Parties. — The party which followed 
Jackson's lead was called the Democratic party. The name 
was intended to declare that it was the party of the people. 
It maintained that the people should everywhere manage their 
own affairs, and that the general government should interfere 
as little as possible. Opposed to it, under the leadership of 
Henry Clay,^ was the National-Republican party, later called 
the Whig party,- which maintained that the general govern- 
ment should have more to do with managing the affairs of the 

1 Clay's name has already appeared. He was born in Hanover County, Va., 
April 12, 1777. He lost his father early, and was thrown on his own resources. 
He bec^an his self-support in a Richmond store, but he was too intellectual in 
his tastes to remain in this position, and he began the study of law in 1796; 
the next year he moved to Lexington, Ky., where his captivating manner and 
his brilliant parts at once made him a favorite and gave him prominence. He 
threw himself into politics, and advocated a constitutional provision for the 
gradual abolition of slavery in the State. He was twice United States sena- 
tor, but in 1811 he went to the House of Representatives, and was at once 
chosen speaker. It was largely his leadership that forced the reluctant Mad- 
ison administration into declaring war with Great Britain, and Clay gave 
vigorous support to the administration throughout. He was one of the com- 
missioners at Ghent. He was more than once a candidate for the Presidency. 
He was one of the greatest of American orators, a splendid party chief, and 
an ardent lover of his country. He is identified with the great compromises, 
but he advocated them because he was a passionate lover of the Union, and 
would preserve it at any cost short of dishonor. A famous saying of his was, 
" I would rather be right than President." He died in Washington, June 29, 
1852. See a very interesting life by Carl Schurz in American Statesmen series 

2 Before the war of independence, the title of Whigs was loosely applied to 
those who opposed parliamentary and royal authority, in opposition to the 
Tories, who were supporters of the crown and Parliament. The names were 
drawn from English political history. The term "Tories" had disappeared 
from American politics, for it had been rendered especially obnoxious by its 
association with the opponents of the Revolution. The term "Whigs" was 
now revived by those who saw In Clay and his party the supporters of con- 
gressional authority against a too powerful executive. 

u 



290 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 



whole country. It was in favor of a protective tariff, and of 
internal improvements at national expense;^ it was in favor 




Henry Clay. 

1 The question whether the general government or State governments should 
carry on internal improvements had largely been confined heretofore to the 
matter of canals and gi-eat highways. The attention from this time given to 
the construction of railroads, which superseded canals and highways, and 
were private enterprises carried on under State laws, made the old debate 
steadily of less importance, and when, after the war for the Union, internal 
improvements were carried on upon a vast scale, the question had ceased to 
be one of constitutional opinion, dividing parties. 



ADMINISTRATION OF ANDREW JACKSON. 291 

also of a United States Bank, with branches, to be char- 
tered by the government, instead of a multitude of local 
banks. 

147. Party Government. — There had been parties before, as 
we have seen, but from this time forward for many years, the 
system of government was party government. That is, not 
only did the people divide usually into two great parties on 
national questions, but they kept the same division in State 
and even m city aud town questions. The discipline of party 
organization seemed to demand this. When a party came into 
power, it made a clean sweep of the offices, turned out the men 
of the opposite party who had held them, and put in men of 
their own party. 

Jackson introduced this method of what was long called 
practical politics. He treated the offices as rewards for those 
who had worked for him.^ It is estimated that when Congress 
first met after Jackson came into power, a thousand removals 
from office had taken place against about a hundred and fifty 
all told in previous administrations. Party government had 
already become common in the States, especially in New York ; 
but from this time forward it was the rule throughout the 
country, and a class of men came into existence who made 
their living out of politics. Jackson was an imperious man, 
and his rule, unlike that of previous Presidents, was without 
much regard to his Cabinet. He was much influenced by a 
small group of his immediate friends, and it was they indeed 
who largely determined the changes in office. 

148. Webster and Hayne. — Jackson had a powerful party 
behind him, and there were many in it who pushed to an ex- 
treme the doctrine of State sovereignty. The question whether 
the Constitution intended a Union superior to the States, or a 
compact between States where each was supreme, was debated 
in the United States Senate in 1830. Kobert Young Hayne, 
of South Carolina, defended the State-sovereignty doctrine, and 

1 The system has been called the Spoils System , from the remark made by a 
prominent politician that " to the victors belong the spoils."- 



292 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 

Daniel Webster/ of Massachusetts, the doctrine of the suprem- 
acy of the Union. In the debate Webster earned the reputa- 
tion of being the ablest constitutional defender of the Union. 
The closing words of one of his speeclies, " Liberty and Union, 
now and forever, one and inseparable," became a watchword.^ 

149. Nullification. — The Southern States had at first favored 
a protective tariff, because it had made a new market for 
cotton, where it would not be taxed. The Northern States, tak- 
ing advantage of the tariff, had turned their energies to manu- 
facturing. The tariff, by successive acts, had been made to 
cover a great many articles. The North was thus growing 
rich, but the South seemed to be gaining nothing. The great 
articles of export, cotton and tobacco, went from the South; 
it was by selling these that tlie country was able to buy goods 
from Europe. But when these goods came, a heavy tax was 
laid on them, and thus they had to be sold at a high price. 
The South said : " If the tariff be made lower, these goods 
which our tobacco and cotton have bought in England, will 
not cost us so much." The North objected: "Yes. But the 

1 Daniel Webster was born in Salisbury, now Franklin, N.H., January 18, 
1782. He was educated first at Phillips Academy, Exeter, and afterward at 
Dartmouth College. He was so shy a youth that he could not be induced to 
speak a piece in school, but by the time he had left college ho had overcome 
his shyness, and was noted as a debater. He was admitted to the bar in 1805, 
and practiced first in Portsmouth, N.H. He was a member of Congress in 
1813, and was opposed to the war, though he did not go the length of the New 
England Federalists. In 1816 he removed to Boston, where he became famous 
as a lawyer. He took part in revising the constitution of Massachusetts, and 
was sent again to Congress in 1822. He had already become noted as an 
orator. His speech on the second centennial of the landing of the Pilgrims 
brought him great fame, and later his address at Bunker Hill, in 1825, added 
to his distinction. He was United States senator and Secretary of State under 
Harrison, and again under Fillmore. His public services are further referred 
to in the text. He made a powerful impression on his contemporaries by the 
weight of his presence and speech. Carlyle called him a steam-engine in 
boots. He died at his country home in Marshfield, Mass., October 24, 1852. 
The latest and best account of him is that by Senator Lodge, in the Amei'ican 
Statesmen series. 

2 The speeches of Webster and Hayne well repay reading, not only as a dis- 
cussion of a fundamental public question, but also for their rhetorical power. 



ADMINISTRATION OF ANDREW JACKSON. 



293 



I 




Daniel "Webster. 



foreign goods will be so cheap that it will be impossible for us 
to manufacture and sell them at the same or a lower price, 
and all our manufactories will have to stop." 



294 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 

At last the State of South Carolina declared that the tariff 
had become so oppressive to her citizens that it could no longer 
be borne. A convention was called in November, 1832, which 
passed an ordinance declaring the tariff acts to be null and 
void so far as South Carolina was concerned. The convention 
threatened that if the Federal government should attempt to 
enforce the tariff acts, South Carolina, as a free and independ- 
ent State, would withdraw from the Union. ISTullification 
was the name given to the act by which the State declared 
certain laws to have no force in her territory. Mr. Calhoun 
and his followers maintained that the State could refuse to 
obey laws made by Congress, when those laws were injurious 
to her, and that the Federal government could not force her 
to obey. But people saw instinctively that force might be 
used ; hence all over the State, military companies were formed, 
and preparations for resistance were made. 

Clay's Compromise Tariff. — Though President Jackson be- 
lieved that the States should manage their own affairs, he 
believed also that when laws were passed in Congress for the 
whole country, no one State had a right to refuse to obey those 
laws. He told South Carolina at once that, if she resisted, the 
whole force of the Union would be used against her. For a 
while it looked as if there would be fighting. But Clay, who 
was the leader of the protectionists, came forward and proposed 
a compromise by which the tariff was modified. South Carolina 
had won her point. The doctrine of Nullification had not been 
put to the test of arms ; but the doctrine of State sovereignty 
had established itself still more firmly in the South. 

150. The Bank of the United States and the State Banks. — The 
charter of the Bank of the United States was to expire in 1836. 
Jackson had shown hostility to the bank when he first came 
into office. Like Jefferson he regarded it as unconstitutional, 
and he looked upon it as a political machine in the hands of 
his enemies. He attacked it as a moneyed power which might, 
if not checked, become a menace to the liberty of the people. 
He threw all his personal influence, which largely controlled 



ADMINISTRATION OF ANDREW JACKSON. 



295 



his party, against the bill to recharter the bank and stopped 
the further deposit of Federal money in the bank, distributing 
it instead among certain State banks. As a result, the bank 
failed to secure a renewal of its charter, and a great impetus 
was given to State banks all over the country. 

151. Inflation. — It was a period when there was the appear- 
ance of the greatest X3rosperity. Not only was the national 
debt paid off, but there 
was for a short time a 
surplus in the public 
treasury. Every one 
expected to be rich a1 
once ; railroads wer( 
built and canals wen 
dug before there wa^ 
business enough to war 
rant them ; more good.' 
were imported from Eu 
rope than were needed 
everybody fell to spec 
ulating, and there was 
a rush to buy Western 
lands. 

But the money paid 
for the lands was the 
paper of the banks, 
and the banks had is- 
sued their paper far beyond their power to redeem it. Jack- 
son, who Avas quick in perception, courageous and prompt, 
issued Avhat is known as the specie circular. He did what Con- 
gress had refused to do : he made the regulation that nothing 
but gold and silver should be received for the sale of public 
lands. This caused a demand for specie at the banks where 
gold and silver were deposited, and soon the banks all over the 
country began to give way. There was a crash, and the year 
1837 was long remembered as a year of bankruptcy and ruin. 




Martin Van Buren. 



296 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 

• 

152. Van Buren's Administration. — When Jackson's second 

term was ended, Martin Van Buren ^ of New York was elected 

President; he carried out Jackson's policy, and was justly 

considered his successor both in name and fact. During his 

administration, the separation of the government from 

banking was rendered complete by the establishment 

of the subtreasury system, by which branches of the national 

treasury were established in important trade centers. 

1 Martin Van Buren was born at Kinderhook, N.Y., December 5, 1782. He 
was a lawyer, and in his early career a zealous adherent of Jefferson. He had 
a genius for political organization, and, after filling other offices, he was 
elected United States senator in, 1821, and governor of New York in 1828. 
He was Jackson's Secretary of State. He lived a long life, but the latter 
part was spent in private affairs. He died at Kinderhook, July 24, 1862. 

QUESTIONS. 

When was Andrew Jackson inaugurated ? How many years was he 
President ? What change in the temper of people did the election sig- 
nify ? Define the two parties prominent in Jackson's administration. 
What was the Webster-Hayne debate ? What effect on the two parts of 
the country did the protective tariff have ? What action did South Caro- 
lina take ? What is nullification ? What stand did Jackson take ? What 
was the action of Jackson in the case of the Bank of the United States ? 
What effect did his course have on the State banks ? What was the con- 
dition of the country afterwards ? What was the nature of Van Buren's 
administration ? What important act took place in it ? 

SEARCH QUESTIONS. 

What was the occasion of the Webster-Hayne debate ? What was the 
Whig party in English politics ? Was there any difference between the 
position taken by the advocates of nullification in South Carolina and 
that taken by the Federalists in New England during the War of 1812 ? 

SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. 
Composition : 

A comparison of the training of John Quincy Adams and Andrew 
Jackson for the Presidency. 
Debate : 

Besolved, That Federal elections and city or town elections should not 
be held on the same day. 



( 



CHAPTER XVII. 



TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN WAR. 



Rio Grande (re'6 gran'da). 

Houston (hu'ston). 

Corpus Cristi (kor'pus kris'te) = 

Christ's Body. 
Nueces (nwa'ses). 
Palo Alto (pa'lo al'to). 
Resaca de la Palma (ra-sa'ka da- 

la-pal'ma). 
Kearney (kar'ni). 
Santa Fe (san'ta fa)= Holy Faith. 
Fremont (fre-monf). 
Monterey (mon-te-ra')- 



Buena Vista (bwa'na ves'ta) = Fair 

View. 
Cerro Gordo (ser'ro gor'do). 
Jalapa (ha-la'pa). 
Puebla (pweb'la). 
Contreras (kon-tra'ras). 
Churubusco (choo-roo-boos'ko). 
Molino del Rey (mo-le'no -del ra) 

= King's Mill. 
Chapultepec (cha-pool'ta-pek). 
Gila (he'la). 
Mesilla (me-sel'ya). 



153. Relative Expansion of North and South. — Since Missouri, 
two other States had been admitted to the Union, — Arkansas ^ 
in 1836, and Michigan^ in 1837. Half of the States were now 

1 Arkansas was carved out of the great Louisiana, purchased in 1803, and 
took its name from the river so called by the Indians. There is doubtless 
some connection with the word Kansas. The name was pronounced some- 
times Arkan'sas, sometimes Ar'kansaw ; and there is a story of a very punc- 
tilious speaker of the House who followed carefully the divided pronunciation 
of two members, and never failed to recognize appropriately "the member 
from Arkan'sas," and " the member from Ar'kansaw." In 1881 a resolution 
of the State Senate declared the true pronunciation to be Ar'kansaw. When 
the State of Louisiana was formed in 1819, Arkansas became a portion of the 
new Missouri territory, until it was itself erected into a State. 

2 The early footfall of the white man in Michigan may be found in Section 
23 of the Introduction. In 1670 La Salle visited the lake, and for a long time 
Michilimackinac was a center of Jesuit missions and Indian trade. In 1701 
a military colony was planted at Detroit, and in 1700 the post came into the 
hands of the English. It was here that Pontiac laid his siege in 1763. By the 
treaty of 1783 the country passed to the United States, but it was not occupied 
as a portion of the Northwest Territory till 1796, and was made in 1805 a 

297 



298 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 

free States, and half slave ; but in population the free States 
were gaining more rapidly than the slave States. In 1830 the 
excess of population in the free States was more than a million ; 
in 1840 it was nearly two and a half millions. Moreover, after 
the admission of Arkansas, Florida was the only territory 
which could be admitted as a slave State. To the north and 
northwest of the line of 36° 30' lay an apparently boundless 
country, out of which free States could be formed. It was in 
this direction that the population of the country was moving. 

Southern statesmen saw very clearly that by the natural 
growth of the country the free States would soon far exceed 
the slave States in territory, population, wealth, and political 
power. They saw that in order to maintain the relative im- 
portance of their section they must in some way enlarge the 
territory which they might occupy, and they looked for this to 
the great country of Texas. It lay south of 36° 30', was suited 
to slavery, and was already occupied by many Southerners. 

Texas was originally a part of the Spanish province of Mex- 
ico. When the United States bought Louisiana of France, there 
was a dispute with Spain whether the boundary of that province 
was the Sabine River or the Rio Grande. When, sixteen years 
later, the United States bought Florida of Spain, it was a part 
of the agreement that the line between Louisiana and Mexico 
should be the Sabine River. 

154. The Independence of Texas. — In 1821 Mexico revolted 
from Spain, and formed a republic modeled after the United 
States. Like other Spanish states in America, it abolished 
slavery. The South thus had for its neighbor a free country 
hemp.iing it in on the south and southwest. President John 
Quincy Adams and President Jackson each made the attempt 
to buy Texas of Mexico ; but Mexico refused to sell. Mean- 
while, emigration from the Southwestern States had set in, 
and many Americans had made their home in Texas. 

territory by itself. The State early formed an important system of public 
education, crowned by the University of Michigan. An excellent account of 
the State is that by T. M. Cooley, at one time its chief justice. 



TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN WAR. 299 

The most noted of them was General Sam Houston ^ of Ten- 
nessee, who was the leader of an adventurous body of men. At 
his instigation Texas, in 1835, declared her independence of 
Mexico, and set up a government of her own, with Houston 
at the head. Texas then applied for annexation to the Union. 
The importance of such an addition was seen at once. Out of 
this vast territory five States could be formed. If slave 
States, they would greatly strengthen the slavery party. The 
Whigs, under Webster and Clay, opposed annexation. They 
said that to annex Texas was to go to war with Mexico ; for 
Mexico had not acknowledged the independence of Texas. 

155. Rise of the Abolitionists. — The question of the annexa- 
tion of Texas was a political one, but it was discussed upon 
the ground of its relation to slavery, for the maintenance and 
extension of slavery was rapidly becoming the one great politi- 
cal subject. It was also taken up as a moral question. In 
1833, the National Antislavery Society was formed. It repre- 
sented the convictions of many at the North, and these con- 
victions were largely formed through the influence of one man. 

William Lloyd Garrison,^ of Massachusetts, — a poor man, 

1 Houston was a most picturesque character, and the reader will find it 
well worth his while to read a narrative of his life. One of the latest and 
most careful is that by Alfred M. Williams. The facts of his life are often 
obscure. He was born in Rockbridge County, Va., March 2, 1793. He was 
of Scotch-Irish descent, and lived much among the Indians ; being, indeed, 
adopted by one of them. When he made a trip to Washingfon, in 1832, in the 
interest of some Indian tribes, he wore the Indian dress. He lived till July 25, 
1863, when he died in Huntsville, Walker County, Texas. He was a strong 
Unionist until Texas passed the act of seccsjion, when he followed his State. 

2 Garrison was born in Newburyport, December 10, 1805, of parents who 
had just removed thither from Nova Scotia. His boyhood was one of hard- 
ship, and after other experiments he was apprenticed to the printer of the 
Neiohuryport Herald. At the close of his apprenticeship he established the 
jFree Press in the same town, and used, then as well as later, to set up his 
editorials in type without first writing them out. He had the pleasure of 
encouraging a young Quaker lad named Whittier by printing his early verses. 
In 1829 he went to Baltimore, where he advocated the doctrine of immediate 
emancipation, and, for his outspoken attacks on slavery, was sent to jail. 
In 1831 he established The Liberator newspaper in Boston. He was mobbed, 
and at one time was dragged through the streets of Boston with a halter 



300 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 

who had been bred a printer, — established a weekly news- 
paper, called The Liberator. It was devoted to the entire and 

immediate abolition of African slavery in America. 
1 oqi *^ 

' For his part, he did not think the Union worth pre- 
serving if it protected the slave system. He took the ground 
that for a man to hold slaves at all is a sin. He was not the 
first to say this, but his openness of speech and his persistence 
^^^^^^^^^^^ made him and his paper 
^ ' " ^^^^^^^^^^H conspicuous. Others, 

^ ^ X. V ^j: ^^ f^^S ii^Gn and women, came 

" <^^K^ -' ' ' ''^"^ ^ forward to support him, 

^^^'^F^M^ ^ m, ^^^^^ ^^® name of " abo- 

' *!X ^^ .i^J^i-'"^^ litionists" was given 

- C; ^^W^y ^ '^ \ <''^^ They did not as yet 

X. / '' ' Z - ^M constitute a political 

- ^P"''' I^H^^te"^^ P'^^i'ty? but they kept up 
^ $^^ ^^-*^^^BBKS^ an incessant attack upon 

/ .,fli^^^^y#Cfi^^^^^^Bt^ ^^^^ ^^'^^ ^^ slavery. They 
^ ^^_^hHh^^h|^^H^^^^^H^ were persecuted ; their 

"^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^Kk books and papers were 

■■3^^H|^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H destroyed; 

^^H^H^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H tempt to stop them only 

^^■Hp^l^^^^^^^^^^^^^^l gave a new opportunity 

HH^m[H^H^HIH^^H||H for the discussion of the 

rights and wrongs of 
William Henry Harrison. , r.^i i i i t 

slavery. The slavehold- 
ers and their friends at the North declared that the abolition- 
ists were destroying the peace of the country. They charged 

about his body. But he never flinched. When he began the publication of 
The Liberator he wrote: " I am in earnest — I will not equivocate — I will not 
excuse — I will not retreat a single inch — and I will be heard." These 
words are cut into the pedestal which bears his statue in Commonwealth 
Avenue, Boston. He lived to see the accomplishment of the great reform 
he had agitated, and died in New York, May 24, 1879. His life has been writ- 
ten as an historical work by his children. There is a briefer one by Oliver 
Johnson. 



TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN WAE. 



301 



them with inciting the slaves to insurrection, and they called 
upon friends of the Union to put them down. 

In Congress, rules were made to prevent the introduction 
of any matter hostile to slavery. Members tried to exclude 
petitions for the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia 
and in the Territories over which Congress had control. They 
took the ground that 
slavery was a matter 
which could not be 
touched by Congress. 
The right of petition 
has been a right held 
sacred by the people ; 
and a champion for this 
right appeared in Ex- 
President John Quincy 
Adams, who had been 
sent back to Washing- 
ton as representative 
in Congress from his 
district in Massachu- 
setts. He presented 
these petitions again 
and again. The slavery 
party refused to admit 
them; and the conse- 
quence was that multitudes of people at the North were gained 
over to the antislavery side. 

156. Presidential Elections of 1840 and 1844. — When the 
election of 1840 occurred, the growing dissatisfaction with 
the Democratic party led to the election of the Whig candi- 
date, William Henry Harrison^ of Ohio. He died a month 
to a day after he entered office, and the Vice President, John 

1 We have already met Harrison in the Indian fights of the Northwest. He 
was the youngest son of Benjamin Harrison, one of the signers of the Declara- 
tion of Virginia, and the grandfather of that other Benjamin Harrison who 




John Tyler. 



302 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 




Tyler/ of Virginia, be- 
came President. The 
question of annexation 
was hotly discussed in 
the Presidential election 
of 1844. Van Buren, 
who had opposed the 
annexation of Texas, 
was rejected by the 
Democratic party, and 
James Knox Polk, of 
Tennessee, who favored 
annexation, was nomi- 
nated. Henry Clay was 
nominated by the 
Whigs. A bitter con- 
test followed. 
The antislav- 
ery men, at first inclined 
to follow Clay, left him at the last moment, when he came out 
in favor of annexation, and they voted for a third candidate. 

was twenty-third President. He was born in Berkeley, Charles City Co., Va., 
February 9, 1773. He was educated at Hampden Sidney College, and began 
the study of medicine, but the Indian troubles of 1798 drew him into the army, 
against the wishes of Robert Morris, who was his guardian, but with the 
approval of Washington, who was a friend of his father. He came finally to 
live at North Bend, Ind., and the house in which he lived still retained at 
one end a log cabin built by one of the early settlers. When he was nomi- 
nated for the Presidency, some enthusiastic person called attention to the 
republican simplicity of his living, and made much of the fact that he had 
hard cider instead of wine on his table. The cry of log cabin and hard cider 
was taken up as a campaign cry, and in the political meetings and processions 
pictures and models of a log cabin played a conspicuous part. 

1 John Tyler was born at Green way, Charles City Co., Va., March 29, 1790. 
He was graduated at William and Mary College in 1807, and took up the 
practice of law. He served for a brief period in the House of Representatives 
in 1816, was for a while chancellor of AVilliam and Mary College, and in 1825 
was elected governor of the State. The next year he was sent to the Senate. 
He was a Democrat, but was hostile to Jackson, and was nominated on the 
ticket with Harrison, with the expectation that he would draw after him the 



James Knox Polk, 



TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN WAR. 303 

157. Annexation of Texas. — Polk^ was elected, and Texas 
was annexed by resolution of Congress. Two States were 
now admitted into the Union, — Florida in March, 1845, and 
Texas in December of the same year. In spite of the strong 
opposition to the annexation by the antislavery party, there 
was a general feeling of pride that the country had acquired 
so large an addition. Politicians in favor of annexation did 
their best to draw men's minds away from the question of 
slavery, and to persuade them to think only of the splendid 
prospects of the United States. They began to say that it 
was the "manifest destiny" of the nation to possess the whole 
continent. 

Texas had been annexed and made a State, but Mexico had 
never recognized the independence of Texas, and naturally 
resented this action of the United States. The republic of 
Mexico had little strength or union. It was composed of a 
population partly xjure Indian, partly pure Spanish, and j)artly 
of both races mingled by marriage. The people had had very 
little training in self-government. The different states were 
jealous of one another, and the chief power was held by what- 
ever military leader could command the largest force. But 
the Mexicans were a spirited people and prepared to fight. 
They refused to listen to an envoy sent by President Polk with 
offers to buy more of their territory. 

malcontents among the Democrats. But when he became President, his politi- 
cal principles made him obnoxious to the Whigs. He died in Richmond, Va., 
January 18, 1862. 

1 James Knox Polk was born in Mecklenburg Co., N.C., November 2, 1795. 
Like several of the Presidents he traced his descent directly from the sturdy 
Scotch-Irish element which appears in the early history of the Eastern coast. 
His father, who w^as a farmer, followed the course so often taken, and moved 
with his young family into Tennessee. In 1818 the future President graduated 
with honor from the University of North Carolina. He studied law, and was 
immediately successful at the bar. He was sent to Congress from 1825 to 1839, 
when he was chosen governor of Tennessee. During his Congressional career 
be was for four years speaker of the House, and ardently supported in turn 
Ja.ckson and Van Buren. He favored the annexation of Texas, and won 
the Presidency in a contest with Henry Clay. He died in Nashville, Tenn., 
June 15, 1843. 



804 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 



158. Taylor's Movements in Mexico — General Zachary Taylor 
with the greater part of the United States army, then number- 
ing not more than five thousand men, was stationed in the 
neighborhood of Corpus Christi, in Texas. The town stood at 
the mouth of the Nueces River, which the Mexicans asserted 
was the boundary of Texas. The Texans claimed the Rio 
Grande as the boundary, and Taylor moved his army to the 
banks of that river. A Mexican force in the neighborhood 

attempted to intercept his movements and captured 
1846 ' ^ ^^^ Americans. As soon as this news reached 

Washington, Polk sent a message to Congress assert- 
ing that war existed by the act of Mexico, and Congress de- 
clared war. Meanwhile Taylor, before he could hear of this, 
fought the battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, in 
which the Mexicans were defeated. 



>, ^ C^ J n Brazos 
Q/^ '% '>> \Santiago 







CAMPAIGN OF GEN. TAYLOR 

Scale of L=== 50 Miles 






159. Kearney and Fremont. — Soon after the declaration of 

war, Colonel Stephen W. Kearney led an expedition from Fort 

Leavenworth into New Mexico for the purpose of separating 

that province from Mexico. He reached Santa Fe, and 

l°fl4-fi ' ^^^ possession of the country in the name of the 
United States. He declared New Mexico a territory 
of the Union and appointed a governor. Leaving some troops 
there, he pushed on to California with the same design. But 
he was anticipated by Captain John C. Fremont, who had been 
sent before the war on an exploring expedition. As soon as 
Fremont heard that war had been declared, he joined forces 



TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN WAR. 305 

with sailors and marines from vessels of the navy that were on 
the Pacific coast, and marched through the country to 
Monterey, the capital of the province. A number ,^?o ' 
of American settlers were there, who proceeded to 
declare the independence of California and organize a govern- 
ment. 

160. Scott's Campaign. — Meanwhile General Taylor was mov- 
ing up the Eio Grande, and after a siege captured 
Monterey in Mexico. He was moving upon the city ^^^g ' 
of Mexico, and at the same time General Winfield 
Scott, who was in command of all the American forces, was to 
take the shorter, more direct route from Vera Cruz on the sea- 
coast. Scott ordered Taylor to send him ten thousand men. 
This weakened Taylor's army, and Santa Anna, the President 
of the Mexican Republic, and general of its army, 
attacked Taylor at Buena Vista. A desperate battle -.giy ' 
was fought. The Americans remained in possession 
of the field ; the Mexicans withdrew and hurried to attack 
Scott, who was expected at Vera Cruz. 

Scott landed, took Vera Cruz by siege, and marched toward 
Mexico, taking the same route that Cortez had fol- 
lowed more than three hundred years before. At -.Q^rj ' 
Cerro Gordo, fifty miles northwest of Vera Cruz, he 
found the Mexicans intrenched. He stormed the position and 
carried it. Santa Anna retreated toward Jalapa. Scott fol- 
lowed him, took the place, and advanced to Puebla, 
where he lay till early in August, waiting for reen- ^o^y ' 
forcements. On the tenth of August the leading 
division of the army caught sight of the city of Mexico from 
the heights overlooking it. 

When Cortez conquered Mexico the city was in the midst of 
a great lake. Since that time the Spaniards had drained the 
country about the city into three lakes. The city was ap- 
proached by causeways crossing marshy land, and each cause- 
way was defended by fortified rocky hills. It was at these 
points that the Mexicans made their final stand. The first 



306 



DEVELOPMENT O^ THE UNION. 



attack by the Americans was made on August 20, — the battle 

of Contreras. The battles of Churubusco and Molino del Rey 

followed. In each of these engagements the Americans were 

victorious, and came nearer and nearer to the city. Finally, 

the last defense of the capital, the rock of Chapultepec, was 

taken by storm ; and the next day, September 14, 1847, Mexico 

surrendered. 

161. Acquisition of 

Territory. — This was 

the end of the war. A 

lit'.Lty was entered into 

witti Mexico, by which 

the Rio Grande was 

iu<ide the southwestern 

boundary of the United 

States, and the 

Gila River the 

northern boun- 

Mexico. The 

States paid 

Mexico fifteen million 

dollars for the territory 

which was thus added 

to its domain, exclusive 

of Texas. Five years 
Zaohary Taylor. Bor. Sept. 24, 1784. j^^^^^ ^j^^ ^^.^^^ g^^^^^ 

bought the Mesilla Valley, south of the Gila River, for ten 
million dollars. General James Gadsden was the agent in this 
purchase. By these two cessions Mexico transferred to the 
United States the country now comprised in California, Ari- 
zona, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Wyoming, Colorado, Kansas, 
and New Mexico. 

Wilmot Proviso. — A few months after the Mexican War 
opened, the President asked Congress to vote money for the 
purchase of territory from Mexico, that so he might end the 
war. David Wilmot, a Democratic member from Pennsyl- 




Feb. 2, 

1848. 

dary of 
United 



TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN WAR. 307 

vania, moved that the provision of the Ordinance of 1787 
which forbade slavery shoukl be applied to any such territory. 
His motion was lost ; but the Wilmot Proviso became a doc- 
trine of the new Free Soil party formed in 1848. This new 
party as well as the Democrats had a candidate for the Presi- 
dency in 1848 ; but the Whigs, who had nominated General 
Taylor, carried the day. President Taylor had a short admin- 
istration. He died July 9, 1850, and was succeeded by the 
Vice President, Millard Fillmore, of New York. 

QUESTIONS. 

What was the relative proportion of free and slave States in 1840 ? 
How did the two sections compare in population ? What new country 
seemed available for the increase of slave territory ? What attempt had 
been made to buy Texas ? What course was taken by Texas itself ? 
What man and what newspaper stood for immediate abolition of slavery ? 
How were the Abolitionists received ? What difficulties did the discus- 
sion of slavery meet with in Congress ? How long did Harrison serve, 
and who took his place ? Who was elected in 1844 ? How was the admis- 
sion of Texas regarded ? How did Mexico regard it ? Narrate General 
Taylor's movements. Describe the movements of Kearney and Fremont. 
Give in detail the incidents of the war from September, 1846, to Septem- 
ber, 1847. What territory came into possession of the United States in 
consequence of the war ? What was the Wilmot Proviso ? What gen- 
eral of the war was so popular that he was elected President ? 

SEARCH QUESTIONS. 

When was slavery abolished by England ? What is the story of the 
Alamo ? What American satire was written against annexation ? What 
was the Bear Flag expedition ? 

SUBJECTS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. 

Compositions : 

The political thought in Lowell's Biglow Papers. 
The storming of the Alamo. 

Debate : 

Besolved, That the Mexican War resulted in good both for Mexico and 
the United States. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 



OREGON AND CALIFORNIA. 



Joaquin (ho-a-ken'). 

El Dorado (do-ra'do) = The Golden 
Region. The name given by the 
Spaniards to a fabulous region in 



America, supposed to be 
richest spot in the world. 
Laramie (lar'a-me). 



the 



162. Boundary Disputes. — Texas was the last slave State 
added to the Union. The tide of emigration was moving 
steadily northwestward. In 1846 Iowa was admitted into the 
Union, and in 1848 Wisconsin.^ While the representatives of 
the people in Congress were struggling with the question of 
free or slave territory, the people themselves were rapidly 
increasing the influence of the free States. The limit of the 
country on the north was the boundary line which separated 
the United States from the British possessions. When a 
treaty of peace was made after the war for independence, this 
northern boundary was made to run from the St. Croix Eiver 
to the Mississippi. 

The St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes marked most 
of the boundary, but for a part of the way there was only an 
imaginary line which never had been laid down in a survey. 
Thus there was a large tract of country which was claimed by 
the inhabitants of Maine and by those of Canada. The dispute 
ran high, and sometimes led to petty warfare, which threatened, 
at one time, to bring the two nations into open war. In 1842 

1 Both of these States made generous provision for education. They stand 
among the most eminent in carrying out the policy, dominant in the West, by 
which constitutional provision is made for a system including schools of all 
grades, from common schools to the university. 

308 



OREGON AND CALIFORNIA. 309 

the English government sent Lord Ashburton as special com- 
missioner to settle the dispute ; and he, with Mr. Webster, who 
was Secretary of State, agreeing upon a compromise, estab- 
lished the northeastern boundary as it now stands. 

The Spanish Claims on the Pacific. — The territory west of 
the line of Mississippi had originally been claimed by Great 
Britain and by France. The dividing line west to the Rocky 
Mountains was on the forty-ninth parallel. When the great 
struggle between England and France was ended in 1763, 
France ceded to England all her territory east of the Mississ- 
ippi, and by a secret treaty to Spain all that she claimed west 
of that river. When, therefore, in 1800, Spain ceded back to 
France what she had received in 1763, the United States 
in 1803 bought the same of France, the boundary continued to 
be the forty-ninth parallel on the north, and the Rocky Moun- 
tains on the west. 

But Spain still claimed the Pacific coast as far as beyond 
61°. She then held Mexico and California, and her vessels 
sailed u}:* and down, trading with the natives. England also had 
settlements on the coast, and Spain conceded to her some right 
of j)ossession, the two countries agreeing to trade peaceably side 
by side. When Spain sold Florida to the United States, in 
1819, she relinquished all claim to the country north of the 
forty-second parallel, and west of the Eocky Mountains. 

163. The Oregon Country. — Whatever claim, therefore, Spain 
once had to that country, the United States now received from 
Spain. It extended indefinitely to the north, was bounded on 
the south by the parallel of 42°, and lay between the Pacific 
Ocean and the Rocky Mountains. It went by the name of 
Oregon, and included the present States of Oregon, Washing- 
ton, Idaho, and part of Wyoming and Montana, as well as part 
of British Columbia. The United States rested its claim to 
this territory on other grounds. In 1792 Captain Robert Gray, 
of Boston, discovered and partly explored the river which he 
named, after his vessel, the Columbia. 

According to usage, the country drained by the river became 



310 DEVELOPMENT Of" THE UNION 

the possession of the nation to which the discoverer belonged. 
Lewis and Clarke also had followed the Columbia and its trib- 
utaries ; and after their return, John Jacob Astor, a New York 
fur merchant, sent out a company, and established near the 
mouth of the river a trading post, to which the name Astoria ^ 
was given. On the other hand, the Northwest Eur Company 
of England, consolidated in 1821 with the Hudson's Bay Com- 
pany,^ had trading posts at the mouth of Eraser's River and at 
various points in the Oregon country. 

Joint Occupation of Oregon. — After the second war with Eng- 
land, when both countries claimed this region, it was agreed 
in 1818 that they should hold it jointly for ten years. The 
Hudson's Bay Company, which was fully equipped for the fur 
trade, increased its stations. At the end of the ten years it 
seemed to have almost entire possession. In 1827, when the 
ten years were near an end, it was agreed to continue the joint 
occupation until notice of its termination should be given by one 
nation or the other. When this agreement was thus renewed, 
St. Louis was the great center of the fur trade of the West. 

Expeditions from that point into the disputed territory soon 
became common. The hunters brought back word of the fine 
farming and grazing lands they had seen, and parties of emi- 
grants began to make their way in that direction. The Hud- 
son's Bay Company, though hospitable to newcomers, naturally 
sought to keep the trade, especially that in furs, in its own 
hands. The United States government was strongly advised 
by officers of the army and traders who visited the country to 
establish posts there in order that an authority equal to that 
of the British might be asserted. These travelers, moreover, 
demonstrated the possibility of access to the country, and de- 
scribed its resources. 

164. A Boundary Compromise. — Eortunately for the peace 
of the country, the agreement between the United States and 

1 See Washington Irving's Astoria. 

2 This company received its charter in 1G70. An interesting account of its 
operations may be read in The Great Lone Land. 



OREGON AND CALIFORNIA 311 

Great Britain distinctly asserted that the claim of either na- 
tion to the country was not to be jeoxoarded by any settlements 
which might be niade by either Englishmen or Americans. The 
agreement for joint occupation was to be terminated by at least 
a year's notice from either party. Nevertheless, such a joint 
occupation could not be satisfactory. The Indians that lived 
in the country grew restless as they saw white men taking up 
their abode on Indian hunting grounds. There was always 
danger also of feuds between the English and the Americans, 
especially regarding the control of trade, and it was plain tkat 
the new communities formed could not prosper when there was 
uncertainty as to what government they were under. 

As successive parties of emigrants from the United States 
entered the disj)uted country, the necessity for decision became 
more apparent, and both Congress and the Adininistration at 
Washington took up the subject. It entered into national pol- 
itics. The Democratic party, with Polk for its presidential 
candidate, raised the cry of " Fifty-four forty or fight," mean- 
ing that the United States should demand of England all of 
the country up to the parallel of 54° 40', which was the south- 
ern limit of Russian America. England on its part stood out 
for a boundary marked by the Columbia Eiver. In Congress, 
more than fifty speeches were made for and against the termi- 
nation of the agreement of joint occupation. 

Meantime, one administration after another in its correspon- 
dence with the government of Great Britain had insisted upon 
a line drawn at 49°. When Lord Ashburton came over in 1842, 
he was instructed to make counter propositions, but was for- 
bidden by his government to accept the line of 49°. There was 
some informal discussion between Lord Ashburton and Mr. 
Webster respecting the Oregon boundary, but the subject never 
came to a distinct issue. Lord Ashburton was too desirous to 
settle the northeastern boundary to jeopard that matter by 
discussing the Oregon boundary ; he had strict instructions 
not to accept the boundary of 49°, and it was evident that the 
American government would accept nothing short of that. 



312 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION 

• 

The controversy was closed in 1846. The British govern- 
ment yielded its claim, and proposed to the United States that 
they should agree on the paralled of 49° straight through from 
the Kocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean, and a treaty was 
drawn up on this basis and concluded. 

165. The California Pioneers — In the same year that Cali- 
fornia became United States territory, gold was discovered in 
the valley of the Sacramento Eiver, at the mills of 
Colonel Sutter, a SavIss immigrant ; and a very hasty 
exploration showed that there was a great deposit of the precious 
metal. The news spread all over the world, and immediately 
there followed a rush to the gold region. The great body of 
the immigrants was at first made up of men only, who came 
chiefly from the Northern States of the Union. 

There were three modes of reaching California : by ship round 
Cape Horn ; ^ by ship to Panama, thence across the isthmus, and 
again by ship ; and finally by the overland route. In two years 
there were a hundred thousand inhabitants in the valleys of 
the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers. The splendid 
harbor of San Francisco gave shelter to vessels which came 
from all parts of the world. The town of San Prancisco, 
which in 1840 had only five hundred inhabitants, now sprang 
into a city. 

At first California was regarded as an El Dorado. It was 
occupied by a restless population searching for gold ; but the 
needs of the new country quickly attracted merchants, while 
the fruitful valleys induced farmers to settle. Many who had 
come to dig for gold found it more profitable to engage in 
business or agriculture. 

The overland route to California was a perilous one. Beyond 

the settled country lay the "plains," a hundred days' journey 

from the California valleys. Great herds of buffalo were found 

on these plains, and were hunted by roving tribes of Indians. 

In 1848 Fort Laramie, in what is now Wyoming, was the 

extreme western limit of population. 

1 Dana's Two Years before the Mast is a notable account of such a voyage 
and contains also a vivid picture of San Francisco before the discovery of gold. 



OEEGON AND CALIFORNIA, 313 

166. The Mormons and Utah At one spot, however, mid- 
way on the route to California, a remarkable settlement had 
been made. Joseph Smith, a resident of western New York, 
declared that he had received revelations from God ; in 1830 
he published a book called the Book of Mormon. He formed 
a society of men and women, and they made a settlement at 
Kirtland in northern Ohio and afterward at Independence in 
Missouri. In 1838 they were driven out of Missouri, and a 
new settlement was made at Nauvoo, in Illinois. Six years 
later, Joseph Smith was killed, and in 1847, the Mormons, 
under Brigham Young, made a new move ; this time they went 
far beyond the western frontier and established themselves in 
the valleys of what is now the State of Utah. 

Irrigation. — The early immigrants to Utah were inured to 
every hardship and privation of pioneer life. Some of their 
trains were attacked by the hostile Indians of the plains, and 
others, delayed by severe snow storms in the mountains, lost 
many of their number before reaching the valley of the Great 
Salt Lake. In this valley they encountered conditions which 
were entirely different from any they had known in the East- 
ern States. The soil, though naturally rich, can be rendered 
productive only by irrigation. They dug ditches Avhich carried 
the water of the mountain streams out into the valleys, and 
in a few years the former desert was producing all sorts of 
grains, fruits, and flowers. Irrigation had been practiced for 
centuries by the natives of Mexico, but it was in Utah and by 
the Mormons that this system of cultivation was introduced on 
a large scale in the United States. 

Domestic and Religious Customs. — The land was divided in 
such a way that every family had its lot to cultivate, and by the 
practice of the community, every one who worked could have a 
share in the enterprises which enriched the community. A con- 
tribution of one tenth of the annual income of each member was 
paid in cash, produce, or labor for the support of the church. 
Mormon missionaries traveled in the older States and in Europe, 
making converts and bringing them to the new home. 



L 



314 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 

They offered to people who were discontented and to the 
hard-worked poor a land of promise and plenty. They ap- 
pealed to religious people, and declared that God was with 
them, as He had been with the Jews of old. In process of 
time many settlements were made in the valleys throughout 
Utah that were favorably located for irrigation. Towns and 
cities were built, and an energetic people, engaged in diversi- 
fied industries, produced for themselves almost every article of 
utility and comfort. 

This Mormon community differed in many ways from the 
settlements of the older States. It was a great industrial com- 
munity, but the power was held in the hands of the officers of 
the church. Their religion also countenanced polygamy, and 
thus they were still more a peculiar people. They were work- 
ing out their problems with the advantage of separation from 
other people. But Utah now lay in the track of the overland 
migration to California. Hence the Mormon rulers, remem- 
bering what persecution they had undergone in Ohio, Missouri, 
and Illinois, gave no encouragement to the passage of emigrant 
trains through their settlement. 

167. The Compromise of 1850. — President Taylor was eager 
to bring California into the Union before the question of 
slavery in that Territory should be discussed in Congress. 
He urged the people of California to call a convention and 
organize a State. They did this ; and, since they 
were largely from the North, they formed a consti- 
tution prohibiting slavery, and applied for admission into 
the Union. 

At the time when California thus applied, Henry Clay had 
come forward with a new compromise, by which he hoped 
to settle the growing dissensions. He tried to satisfy the 
proslavery party by proposing to grant ten million dollars 
to Texas in return for territory given up, to organize the 
territories of Utah and New Mexico without any provision 
regarding slavery, and especially to enact a more rigid Fugi- 
tive-Slave Law. 



OREGON AND CALIFORNIA. 815 

The Fugitive-Slave Law. — The Constitution expressly gave 
to slaveholders the right to recover their slaves if they escaped 
into another State ; but the increasing hostility of people in the 
free States to the system of slavery made it extremely difficult 
for slaveholders to find and recover runaway slaves, when they 
escaped into the free States. The matter was one of great irri- 
tation to slave owners. They complained that they were de- 
prived of their rights, in direct opposition to the Constitution. 
The new Fugitive-Slave Law was therefore so drawn as to re- 
quire United States commissioners to be more vigilant in hunt- 
ing for runaway slaves. It gave new x^owers to the claimant 
in establishing the identity of the person claimed ; it also gave 
the officers the right to call upon any citizen to help them in 
the search and capture. 

Clay and Webster. — To satisfy the antislavery men, Clay 
proposed the admission of California as a free State, and the 
abolition of the slave trade in the District of Columbia. He 
took the ground that if Utah and New Mexico were organized 
as territories, and left to settle the question of slavery them- 
selves, both the proslavery and the antislavery men in those 
territories would have equal rights. Webster gave his sup- 
port to the Compromise of 1850. Like others, he viewed with 
alarm the growing dissension between the two sections of the 
country. He was a great public leader, and he worked with 
all his might to preserve the Union against the attacks of the 
extreme proslavery men and the attacks of the abolitionists. 

The Immediate Result of the Compromise. — California was 
admitted into the Union; New Mexico and Utah were con- 
stituted territories, Brigham Young being appointed the first 
governor of Utah; Texas received ten million dollars; the 
slave trade in the District of Columbia was abolished, 
and the Fugitive-Slave Law was passed. There were 
many at the North who declared that this law interfered with 
the sacred rights of personal liberty. Some of the States 
passed Personal Liberty laws, designed to protect free ne- 
groes who were charged with being runaway slaves. 



316 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 



QUESTIONS. 

What was the boundary dispute with Great Britain ? How was it 
settled ? Who were the successive claimants of the territory west of the 
Mississippi ? What were the ancient limits of Oregon ? How had the 
country been explored ? how occupied ? What was the special wealth of 
the country in early days ? What were the claims respecting possession ? 
How was the question of boundary settled ? When and where was gold 
first found in California ? How did the emigrants to that country reach 
it ? Narrate the incidents connected with the rise of the Mormons. How 
was Utah made fertile ? What division was made of the land? How did 
the religious belief of the Mormons entfer into their living ? How did the 
Mormons increase their number ? What was the compromise of 1850 ? 
What were the provisions of the Fugitive-Slave Law ? What part did 
Clay take in the compromise? Webster? What were the immediate 
results of the compromise ? 

SEARCH QUESTIONS. 

What was the origin of the Hudson's Bay Company ? What was the 
Aroostook War ? What was the Great American Desert, and what has 
become of it ? What poem did Whittier write about Webster ? 

SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. 

Compositions : 

A pioneer's journey to California. 
A Mormon missionary. 

Debate : 

Resolved^ That the passage of the Fugitive-Slave Law was wise. 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS FOR REVIEW. 

The State of the Country after the War of 1812. 
1. In relation to other countries. 

a. General place of the war in international relations, 120. 

5. England and Canada, 122. 

c. Spain, 123-125. 

d. The other American republics, 126. 

e. Political policy, 127, 128. 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS. 317 

2. In internal affairs. 

a. Dealing with Indians, 123, 124. 

b. Political parties, 121. 

c. Increase of territory, 125. 

d. Increase of States, 137, 153, 157, 162, 167. 

e. The enterprise of the people 
1. In invention and manufactures, 129, 130. 

ii. In farming, 129. 
iii. In mining, 136. 
/. Improvement of transportation, 
i. By roads, 133. 
ii. By canals, 134. 
iii. By steamboats, 135. 
iv. By railroads,' 135. 
g. The occupation of new lands, 137. 
h. Political influence on affairs. 
i. The Protective Tariff, 131. 
ii. The United States Bank, 133. 
iii. Internal improvements, 133, 134. 
II. The System of Slavery. 

1. Its location, 138. 

2. Its early character, 139. 

3. Its acceptance by the people, 139. 

4. The working of the system 
a. As regards the masters, 139, 140. 

5. As regards the slaves, 139, 140. 

c. As regards the prosperity of the South, 140. 

d. As regards the unity of the South, 141. 

5. The forces friendly to slavery. 

a. The political unity of the South, 141. 

b. The commercial interest of the North, 141. 

c. The social forces, 141. 

d. The doctrine of State sovereignty as used by the South, 144. 

6. The forces hostile to slavery. 
a. The restlessness of the slaves, 141. 

6. The increase of the power of free labor, 140, 141. 
c. The moral sense, 141. 

7. The development of the conflict between free labor and slave. 

a. Attempted adjustment of representation, 140. 

b. The competition for occupation of territory, 142. 

c. The doctrines of the abolitionists, 155. 

d. The attempted suppression of discussion, 155. 



318 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 

8. Influence of the system on national policy, 142, 153, 154. 

9. The Wilmot Proviso, 161. 

10. The compromise of 1850, 167. 

III. The Question between the Union and the States. 

1. The doctrine of State Sovereignty, 144. 

2. Its illustration in Georgia, 144. 

3. Its influence on party, 148. 

4. Illustration of the doctrine in South Carolina, 149. 

IV. The War with Mexico. 

1. The provocation, 157. 

2. Condition of the Mexican Republic, 157. 

3. General Taylor's first campaign, 158. 

4. Kearney's expedition, 159. 

5. Fremont's expedition, 159. 

6. General Taylor's second campaign, 160. 

7. General Scott's campaign, 160. 

8. Result of the war, 161. 

V. The Enlargement of the Union beyond the Mississippi. 

1. The title held by the United States. 

a. As derived from France and Spain, 123, 162, 163. 

b. As derived by discovery, 163. 

c. As derived by purchase from Mexico, 161. 

2. The claims of England, 162, 163. 

3. The joint occupation of Oregon, 163. 

4. The efforts made by the English to hold the country, 163, 164. 
6. The movement made by Americans, 163. 

6. The Webster-Ashburton treaty, 162, 164. 

7. Settlement of the question, 164. 

8. Discovery of gold in California, 165. 

9. Its effect upon colonization, 165. 
10. 

11. Routes to California, 165. 

12. The Mormon movement, 166, 167. 
VI. The Administrations. 

1. James Monroe, 121-128, 131-133. 

2. John Quincy Adams, 143. 

3. Andrew Jackson, 145-151. 

4. Martin Van Buren, 152. 

5. William Henry Harrison, 156. 

6. John Tyler, 156. 

7. James Knox Polk, 157-161. 

8. Zachary Taylor, 161, 165-167. 



I 



TUE ADMINISTRATIONS. 319 

THE ADMINISTRATIONS. 

Eighth Administration. 

1817-1821. 

President, James Monroe, Virginia. 

Vice President, Daniel D. Tompkins, New York. 

Cabinet : 

Secretary of State, John Quincy Adams, Massachusetts. 
Secretary of Treasury, William H. Crawford, Georgia. 
Secretary of War, Isaac Shelby, Kentucky. 

George Graham, Virginia. From April 7, 1817. 
John Caldwell Calhoun, South Carolina. From 
Oct. 8, 1817. 
Secretary of Navy, Benjamin W. Crowninshield. 

Smith Thompson, New York. From Nov. 9, 1818. 
Attorney General, Richard Rush. 

William Wirt, Virginia. From Nov. 13, 1817. 

Ninth Administration. 

1821-1825. 

President, James Monroe. 

Vice President, Daniel D. Tompkins. 

Cabinet : 

Secretary of State, John Quincy Adams. 

Secretary of Treasury, William H. Crawford. 

Secretary of War, John Caldwell Calhoun. 

Secretary of Navy, Smith Thompson. 

Samuel L. Southard, New Jersey. From Sept. 16, 
1823. 

Attorney General, William Wirt. 

Tenth Administration. 

1825-1829. 

President, John Quincy Adams. 

Vice President, John Caldwell Calhoun. 



320 DEVELOPMENT QF THE UNION. 

Cabinet: 

Secretary of State, Henry Clay, Kentucky. 
Secretary of Treasury, Eichard Rush. 
Secretary of War, James Barbour, Virginia. 

Peter B. Porter, New York. From May 26, 1828. 
Secretary of Navy, Samuel L. Southard. 
Attorney General, William Wirt. 

Eleventh Administration. 

1829-1833. 

President, Andrew Jackson, Tennessee. 
Vice President, John Caldwell Calhoun. 
Cabinet: 

Secretary of State, Martin Van Buren, New York. 

Edward Livingston, Louisiana. From May 24, 
1831. 
Secretary of Treasury, Samuel D. Ingham, Pennsylvania. 

Louis McLane, Delaware. From August 8, 
1831. 
Secretary of War, John H. Eaton, Tennessee. 

Lewis Cass, Michigan. From August 1, 1831. 
Secretary of Navy, John Branch, North Carolina. 

Levi Woodbury, New Hampshire. From May 23, 
1831. 
Attorney General, John McPherson Berrien, Georgia. 

Roger B. Taney, Maryland. From Dec. 27, 1831. 
Postmaster General, William T. Barry, Kentucky. 

Twelfth Administration. 
1833-1837. 

President, Andrew Jackson. 

Vice President, Martin Van Buren. 

Cabinet: 

Secretary of State, Louis McLane. 

John Forsyth, Georgia. From June 27, 1834. 
Secretary of Treasury, Louis McLane. 

William J. Duane, Pennsylvania. From May 

29, 1833. 
Levi Woodbury. From June 27, 1834. 



THE ADMINISTRATIONS. 321 

Secretary of War, Lewis Cass. 
Secretary of Navy, Levi Woodbury. 

Mahlon Dickerson. From June 30, 1834. 
Attorney General, Roger B. Taney. 

Benjamin F. Butler, New York. From June 24, 
1834. 
Postmaster General, William T. Barry. 

Amos Kendall, Kentucky. From May 1, 1835. 

Thirteenth Administration. 
1837-1841. 

President, Martin Van Buren. 

Vice President, Richard M. Johnson, Kentucky. 

Cabinet: 

Secretary of State, John Forsyth. 
Secretary of Treasury, Levi Woodbury. 
Secretary of War, Joel R. Poinsett, South Carolina. 
Secretary of Navy, Mahlon Dickerson. 

James Kirk Paulding, New York. From June 20, 
1838. 
Postmaster General, Amos Kendall. 

John M. Niles, Connecticut. From May 18, 1840. 
Attorney General, Benjamin F. Butler. 

Felix Grundy, Tennessee. From July 7, 1838. 
Henry D. Gilpin, Pennsylvania. From Jan. 10, 
1840. 

Fourteenth Administration. 

1841-1845. 

President, William Henry Harrison, Ohio. 

John Tyler, Virginia. From April 6, 1841. 
Vice President, John Tyler. 
Cabinet : 

Secretary of State, Daniel Webster, Massachusetts. 

Hugh S. Legar6, South Carolina. From May 9, 

1843. 
Abel P. Upshur, Virginia. From July 24, 1843. 
John Nelson, Maryland. Acting from Feb. 29, 1844. 
John Caldwell Calhoun. From March 6, 1844. 
Y 



322 DEVELOPMENT CtF THE UNION. 

Secretary of Treasury, Thomas Ewing, Ohio. 

Walter Forward, Pennsylvania. From Sept. 

13, 1841. 
John C. Spencer, New York. From March 3, 

1843. 
George M. Bibb, Kentucky. From June 15, 1844. 
Secretary of War, John Bell, Tennessee. 

John C. Spencer. From Oct. 12, 1841. 
William Williams, Pennsylvania. From Feb. 15, 
1844. 
Secretary of Navy, George E. Badger, North Carolina. 

Abel P. Upshur. From Sept. 13, 1841. 
Thomas W. Gilmer, Virginia. From Feb. 15, 1844. 
John Y. Mason, Virginia. From March 14, 1844. 
Postmaster General, Francis Granger, New York. 

Charles A. Wickliffe, Kentucky. From Sept. 13, 
1841. 
Attorney General, John J. Crittenden, Kentucky. 

Hugh S. Legar^. From Sept. 13, 1841. 
John Nelson. From July 1, 1843. 

Fifteenth Administration. 

1845-1849. 

President, James Knox Polk, Tennessee. 

Vice President, George Mifflin Dallas, Pennsylvania. 

Cabinet : 

Secretary of State, James Buchanan, Pennsylvania. 
Secretary of Treasury, Robert J. Walker, Mississippi. 
Secretary of War, William L. Marcy, New York. 
Secretary of Navy, George Bancroft, Massachusetts. 

John Y. Mason. From Sept. 9, 1846. 
Postmaster General, Cave Johnson, Tennessee. 
Attorney General, John Y. Mason. 

Nathan Clifford, Maine. From Oct. 17, 1846. 
Isaac Toucey, Connecticut. From June 21, 1848. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

United States Bank chartered 1816 

Indiana admitted into the Union Dec. 11, 1816 

Seminole War 1817 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 323 

Work on Erie Canal begun July 4, I8I7 

Mississippi admitted into the Union Dec. 10, 1817 

First steamboat on Lake Erie 1818 

Illinois admitted into the Union Dec. 3 1818 

First steamship crossed the ocean '. 1819 

Florida ceded to the United States by Spain Feb. 22, 1819 

Alabama admitted into the Union Dec. 14 1819 

Missouri Compromise 1820 

Maine admitted into the Union March 15, 1820 

Missouri admitted into the Union Aug. 10, 1821 

Independence of Mexico 1821 

The Monroe doctrine announced 1823 

Death of John Adams and Thomas Jefferson July 4, 1826 

First railroad built in the United States 1826 

The Book of Mormon published 1830 

First passenger railway opened 1830 

Debate between Webster and Hayne 1830 

Nullification in South Carolina Nov. 19, 1832 

Removal of deposits from the United States Bank 1833 

Texas declared her independence of Mexico 1835 

Arkansas admitted into the Union June 15, 1836 

Michigan admitted into the Union Jan. 26, 1837 

First propeller launched on Lake Michigan July, 1842 

Northeastern boundary question settled Aug. 9, 1842 

First telegraph in operation in the United States Jan. 6, 1844 

Florida admitted into the Union March 3, 1845 

Texas admitted into the Union Dec. 29, 1845 

Battle of Palo Alto May 8, 1846 

Oregon treaty ratified July 17, 1846 

Santa Y6 taken by Kearney Aug. 18, 1846 

Monterey, Mexico, taken by Taylor Sept. 24, 1846 

Iowa admitted into the Union Dec. 28, 1846 

Battle of Buena Vista Feb. 22, 23, 1847 

Vera Cruz taken by Scott March 27, 1847 

Battle of Cerro Gordo April 18, 1847 

Surrender of the city of Mexico Sept. 14, 1847 

Gold discovered in California January, 1848 

Treaty of peace concluded with Mexico Feb. 2, 1848 

Wisconsin admitted into the Union May 29, 1848 

California admitted into the Union Sept. 9, 1850 



CHAPTER XIX. 

THE MIDDLE OF THE CENTURY. 

Lyce'um. From a Greek word, the name of the place where an ancient 
philosopher taught his disciples ; applied in America to courses of 
popular lectures. 

168. Growth of Administration The addition to the United 

States of the great domain between the Rocky Mountains and 
the Pacific Ocean marks an important period in our history, 
which agrees practically with the middle of the century. It 
was the beginning of a continental occupation, and it was the 
beginning also of the great conflict which was to determine the 
future character of the Union. There were now so many 
States, and the population had increased so much, that there 
was not room in the old Capitol at Washington for the sena- 
tors and representatives. President Fillmore^ laid 
the corner stone of the extension of the Capitol. So 
various had the interests of the people become that a new 
department in the administration had been created. It was 
called the Department of the Interior, and comprised a number 
of offices, like the Patent Office, Census Office, Land 
■ Office, and Bureau of Indian Affairs, all of which had 
formerly been scattered among the other departments. The 
Secretary of this department was made a member of the Cabinet. 

1 Millard Fillmore was born January 7, 1800, in Cayuga County, New York, 
where his father had just made a clearing in the wilderness. He worked his 
way out of a manual occupation into the profession of the law, and in 1823 
began the practice of law in Aurora. In 1830 he removed to Buffalo. He 
took part in politics, and from 1836 to 1842 represented his district in Congress 
as a member of the Whig party. During the short time that he presided over 
the Senate, before the death of Taylor, he showed himself an able and 
impartial officer. After retiring from the Presidency he led a quiet life of 
travel and study, and died in Buffalo, March 8, 1874. 

324 



THE ^MIDDLE OF THE CENTURY. 



325 



169. Telegraphs and Railroads Joseph Henry/ a distin- 
guished man of science, made important discoveries in magnet- 
ism and electricity, and 
in 1840, Samuel F. B. 
Morse, an artist, had 
made such application 
of the principles that he 
received a patent for an 
electric telegraph appa- 
ratus, and four years 
later the first telegraph 
line in this country was 
built, extending from 
Washington to Balti- 
more. The construction 
of this line inaugurat I 
a new and rapid means ot 
communication. From 
that small beginning, 
the business of tele- 
graphing has grown to 
such proportions that 
in 1890 sixty million telegrams were handled by the telegraph 
offices in the United States. 

The development of the country by means of railroads and 

1 Joseph Henry was born in Albany, New York, December 17, 1797. He 
began the study of medicine, but meanwhile busied himself with studies in 
chemistry and mechanics, and having received an appointment as assistant 
engineer on the survey of a great State highway, he abandoned medicine. 
In 1826 he was elected to the chair of mathematics and natural philosophy in 
the Albany Academy. Here began that series of experiments and inventions 
which had so important an influence in the development of electrical science. 
In 1832 Henry was elected to the chair of natural philosophy in the College of 
New Jersey at Princeton, now Princeton University, and in 1846 he was 
appointed secretary and director of the Smithsonian Institution in Washing- 
ton, which had just been established under the bequest of John Smithson, an 
Englishman. He was also made president of the Lighthouse Board in 1871, 
and held both offices till his death in Washington, May 13, 1878. He was 
one of the most eminent of American physicists. 




Millard Fillmore. 



326 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION, 

canals was very rapid. The first railroad in Illinois began 
operation in 1838. It was chartered as the Northern Cross 
Eailroad, and extended from Meredosia to Jacksonville and 
thence to Springfield. In 1851, the Illinois Central Railroad 
was chartered. It received a large grant of public land, and 
in consideration thereof, it was stipulated that the State of 
Illinois should receive for all time seven per cent of the gross 
earnings of the road. In 1852, the Michigan Southern Rail- 
road was completed to Chicago, making through connection be- 
tween Chicago and the East. The Niagara Suspension Bridge 
was finished in 1855, and the first bridge across the Mississippi 
was built the same year at Minneapolis. In 1857, Chicago and 
St. Louis were joined by rail and at the same time a traveler 
could go through^ by rail from Baltimore to St. Louis. 

170. Various expeditions were sent out by the government to 
secure a better knowledge of the national domain. In 1848, 
and again in 1852 and 1853, Captain Fremont was sent out at 
the head of exploring parties to the Rocky Mountains. He 
was an adventurous explorer, and was popularly called " the 
Pathfinder." The discoveries which Fremont made, and the 
new importance of California since the finding of gold there, 
led the government to make more careful surveys. The War 
Department undertook one to determine the most practicable 
and economical route for a railroad from the Mississippi River 
to the Pacific Ocean. 

It was in the middle of the century that the United States 
took an active part in explorations in other parts of the world. 
It sent Captain Wilkes to the Pacific Ocean, where he explored 
the Antarctic Continent ; it sent Lieutenant Lynch to explore 
the valley of the Jordan and the Dead Sea ; it sent Commodore 
Perry with a fleet to Japan, — a country which had heretofore 
been almost unknown to Europe and to America.^ 

1 The United States government published valuable reports of all these 
expeditions. Not only did Commodore Perry do much toward opening 
Japan, but Townsend Harris, the first American envoy to Japan, was a very 
important figure in the negotiation of the first treaties. See his Life by 
William Elliot Griffis. 



THE MIDDLE OF THE CENTURY. 



327 




I 



Samuel Finley Breese Morse.^ 

1 Morse, born in Charlestown, Massachusetts, April 27, 1791, was the son of a 
clergyman whose name was long preserved by the geogi-aphy which he wrote. 
He was educated at Yale College, and there came under the intluence of Day 
and Silliman, who were pioneers in science in America. But after gradu- 
ating he was drawn toward art, and accompanied his master, Washington 
Allston, to England, where he stayed four years. He had some success as a 
portrait painter, and was the first president of the National Academy of 
Design, which he helped to found. He had not lost his interest in physical 
science, and in 1832 when crossing the Atlantic he conceived and sketched the 
process of telegraphing which is known as the Morse system. He had a long 
struggle to perfect his apparatus, to secure and to defend his patent, but after 
that he received honors from all parts of the world. He died April 2, 1872. 



328 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 

171. Increase of Immigration — But the most important con- 
nection wliicli tlie United States had with the rest of the world 
was tlirough tlie very great increase in the number of Euro- 
peans who crossed the Atlantic to make their home in the New 
World, as it was still called. There were several reasons for 
this impulse given to emigration in the middle of the century. 
One was political. In 1848, attempts were made by the people 
in different European countries to secure greater freedom and 
government more like that of the United States. These 
attempts failed for the most part ; but the failure caused many 
of the leaders, who were men of ability and influence, to come 
to America. But stronger reasons for the movement of 
Europeans to America were to be found in the discovery of 
gold in California, the opening up of the Western country by 
railroads, and the cheapness of land. 

Emigration from Ireland. — At first the immigrants were 
very largely English-speaking, and their migration was caused 
in part by a great famine in Ireland in 1847. People in 
the United States sent shiploads of food and made contribu- 
tions of money in aid of the sufferers. The gift showed that 
America was a land of plenty, and a new impulse was given to 
emigration from Ireland. Although many of these emigrants 
had worked on farms at home, they found employment 
chiefly in towns and cities and few went beyond the Atlan- 
tic cities. The coming of such a body of foreigners made 
a great change in the life of the people, especially in New 
England. The young men and women who had been work- 
ing in the factories and mills were eager to go to the West 
and to California. The Irish stepped in and took their places. 
They found higher wages than they had known; they were 
strong and willing. 

The German and Scandinavian Emigration. — The ocean ves- 
sels brought emigrants from other countries of Europe. They 
came by thousands annually from various parts of Germany, 
and from Norway and Sweden, and in lesser numbers from 
other countries. They were a vigorous and industrious class 



THE MIDDLE OF THE CENTURY. 329 

of people who contributed largely to the settlement and devel- 
opment of the great West and Northwest. Though they did 
not speak the English language, they came originally from a 
kindred race of people. 

They readily adopted American habits, and in a few years 
became genuine American citizens who loved their adopted 
country, and were ready to defend its institutions. They 
found homes in Illinois and Michigan and Iowa, taking the 
places, very often, of the restless American pioneers who 
had been the first settlers of these States. The Germans in 
Wisconsin, and the Scandinavians in Minnesota and the Dako- 
tas, constitute a very large percentage of the population of 
these States. 

" During the first fifty years of the existence of the govern- 
ment, one million immigrants came into the United States. 
During the next ten years, from 1841 to 1850 inclusive, the 
tide of immigration brought nearly a million and three quarters 
of home seekers to our shores, and, as we shall see later, this 
was but the beginning of a great movement from Europe to 
America. 

172. The Reaping Machine. — This occupation of the West 
was promoted by the great improvement in labor-saving ma- 
chines, by means of which large farms could be operated by a 
comparatively small number of men. The most notable inven- 
tion was the reaping machine, first patented by Cyrus Mc- 
Cormick, in 1834, and afterward greatly improved. It was 
significant of the rapid advance made by American inventors 
that in 1855, when a trial of reapers was made in France, 
three machines were exhibited from America, England, and 
Algiers, and a field of oats was reaped. The Algerian machine 
cut an acre in seventy-two minutes ; the English, in sixty-six 
minutes ; the American, in twenty-two minutes. 

173. Growth of City Life. — The extension of railways made 
it possible for the great farms in the West to send grain and 
other provisions to the cities very cheaply. The lonely little 
farms in the hill country, nearer the seaboard, became less 



330 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 

valuable and many were deserted, while the cities grew larger 
and larger. This rapid growth of the cities made it difficult 
for them to govern themselves wisely. There were important 
matters, like the supply of the city with water, the system 
of sewerage, the public schools, the erection of public build- 
ings, the police force, the care of the streets, which called for 
great sums of money and needed forethought and care. 

The city was always likely to grow faster than the citizens 
expected. There was an increasing number of persons who 
were in the city only for a short time ; there were many 
others who were intent on their private business and gave 
little attention to public affairs ; and there was a large body 
of voters who had never been trained in popular government. 
The government of the cities was in the hands of a few 
men, chosen by the people, and they were left very much to 
themselves ; so it was often the case that shrewd and selfish 
men acquired power, and governed the cities for their own 
personal advantage rather than for the best good of the 
whole. 

174. The steady stream of immigration had an important effect 
on the history of the country not so clearly understood at the 
time as now. The people who crossed the Atlantic were labor- 
ing people, and they would not go to the Southern States, where 
the laborers were slaves. Besides, the great carrying trade 
between Europe and America was largely in the hands of 
the Northern commercial cities. Hence this army of laborers 
swelled the population of the North, adding to its activities, 
building railroads, working in the factories, and pushing for- 
ward the filling up of the West and Northwest. All this 
strengthened the northern part of the Union in the coming 
struggle. 

175. The Intellectual Life. — The ocean vessels brought emi- 
grants from Europe, — the best gift which they could bring, 
for men and women make a country. They brought also an 
abundance of European goods; the shops were filled with 
costlier articles than American workmen made. Pictures were 



THE MIDDLE OF THE CENTURY. 331 

brought over for exhibition and sale; singers found great 
audiences waiting to hear them; more books were bought. 

It was of greater importance that the people themselves 
began to give attention to other matters than buying and 
selling, making money, and spending it on houses, food, and 
clothing. They had more leisure, and they busied themselves 
with politics, religion, and education, — matters for which 
they had always greatly cared. The habit of meeting and 
acting together when political affairs required made it natural 
for the people to form societies, whenever they had anything 
to accomplish which needed the help of numbers. 

These associations brought together people otherwise widely 
separated. There were publication societies formed by the 
churches, which multiplied books, papers, and tracts. These 
were carried by means of agents to remote villages and homes. 
Education societies helped to establish schools and colleges in 
the thinly settled parts of the country. There was a Coloniza- 
tion Society, which tried to answer some of the vexed questions 
of slavery by sending free blacks to Liberia, in Africa. 

The Lyceum and the Newspaper. — This was a time when the 
lyceum system became popular. In the cities and towns there 
were courses of lectures. As children went to school, so older 
people went to the lyceum to hear lecturers who brought them 
the latest thought on science, literature, art, and philosophy. 
The newspaper had become a familiar visitor. There were 
daily papers in all the cities and towns. Even books were 
published in papers. The public schools had taught every- 
body to read; and the writings of popular English authors 
were printed in great newspapers, and sold so cheaply that 
large numbers were bought and read. 

American Literature. — American authors were taking their 
place among the great men in literature. George Bancroft, who 
had been Secretary of the Navy ^ and minister to England, was 
midway in the publication of his History of the United States. 

1 It was under his secretaryship that the Naval Academy at Annapolis was 
established. 



332 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 



In 1849, Edgar Allan Poe, most imaginative of American poets, 
had died.^ In 1850, Washington Irving had written all his 
books except his Life of Washington. The poems by vi^hich 
William Cullen Bryant is best known had been written and 
published. James Fenimore Cooper died the next year, leav- 

^«-t^-..^^^' . ,.<^r*w^,^r^^ \'}S bf "»d him a long 
r^ /^ . ,- ./ , ' . ' ..-■'' I list of novels, the best 

of which were descrip- 
tive of American life. 

In the middle of 
the century Nathaniel 
Hawthorne,^ the great- 
est of American ro- 
mancers, had written 
The Scarlet Letter, 
which made him fa- 
mous. Henry Wads- 

1 Edgar Allan Poe, the 
son of a Baltimore gentle- 
man and an actress, Eliza- 
beth Arnold, was born in 
Boston, January 19, 1809. 
He was left an orphan when 
three years old, and was 

,,, „ adopted by a wealthy mer- 

Edgar Allan Poe. i ^ • t,- , J ^r- 

° chant in Richmond, Vir- 

ginia, who gave him his own name for a middle name. Poe was well edu- 
cated by his foster father and sent to the University of Virginia, but he was 
an ungovernable, wayward youth, keenly intellectual, brilliant, and restless. 
He ran into debt, enlisted in the army under an assumed name, published a 
small volume of poems, was for a while at West Point, and finally, thrown on 
his own resources, became editor of one magazine after another, married a 
mere girl, and came under the strong sane influence of her mother. He died 
finally in poverty and degradation, October 8, 1849, but he had written poems 
and tales which the world will not let die. The most careful life is that by 
G. E. Woodberry. 

2 Nathaniel Hawthorne was born in the old seaport of Salem in Massa- 
chusetts, July 4, 1804, but he spent his boyhood in the solitude about Lake 
Sebago, Maine, for his father died early, and his mother was a silent, retiring 
woman. The boy grew up shy, but with a deep love of nature and a habit of 
living in his own thoughts. He was a student at Bowdoin College with the 




THE MIDDLE OF THE CENTURY. 




Nathaniel Hawthorne 



poet Longfellow, and after he left college he lived a secluded life in Salem, 
writing stories and sketches which found here and there an appreciative 
reader, and when collected as Twice Told Tales were warmly praised by the 
best critics. Fortunately he married happily Miss Sophia Peabody, who made 
a perfect companion, and with her he lived contentedly at Salem, at Concord, 
in the Berkshire Hills, and — when President Pierce made him consul — at 
Liverpool in England, and Italy. He wrote marvelous romances, The Scarlet 
Letter, The House of the Seven Gables, The Marble Faim, and those delight- 
ful books, Grandfather's Chair and The Wonder Book. He died in Concord, 
May 19, 1864. A very pleasing book has been written about him by his 
daughter, Rose Hawthorne Lathrop, entitled Memories of Hawthorne. 



334 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION, 




worth Longfellow ^ had 
published Evangeline, 
and many of his most 
popular poems. Ealph 
Waldo Emerson^ had 
become known, by his 

1 Longfellow was boru 
in Portland, Maine, Febru- 
ary 27, 1807. He was edu- 
cated at Bowdoin College, 
and showed at once such 
aptitude for a literary life, 
that he was invited, though 
he was only nineteen at 
graduation, to be a professor 
in the college. He went to 
Europe and spent three or 
four years in travel and 
study, laying the foundation 
for that full, rich acquaint- 
ance with language and lit- 
erature which is so evident in 
his writing. He remained at 
Bowdoin five years, and then with another year of study abroad took up the 
work of professor of modern languages and literature at Harvard College. 
He had been writing prose for ten years, when in 1839 he issued a small 
volume of poetry. Voices of the Night, and after that, till the end of his life, 
wrote freely in verse, translating also, especially Dante. He gave up his pro- 
fessorship in 1853, but continued to live in the famous house in Cambridge, 
known as Washington's Headquarters. There he wrote Evangeline, Hia- 
watha, The Courtship of Miles Standish, Tales of a Wayside Inn, and his 
many well-known short poems. He died March 24, 1882. 

2 Ralph Waldo Emerson came of long ministerial descent on both his father's 
and mother's side. He was born in Boston, May 25, 1803, was educated at 
Harvard, and after a short experience in teaching, himself became a minister. 
But he did not long wear the minister's gown ; for though he was ready to 
preach, he wished to be free of church organizations, and his parish came 
to be the English-reading world. His first published prose work. Nature, 
appeared in 1840, and about the same time he began to print his poems ; and 
for forty years, from his quiet home in Concord, he sent out his poems and 
essays, frequently, also, addressing audiences from the lecture platform. His 
wise speech entered into the thought of Americans as perhaps that of no one 
else. He died in Concord, April 27, 1882. His life has been written by Dr. 
Holmes. 



Ralph Waldo Emerson. 




Henry Wadsworth Longfellowi 



336 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 

Essays, as one of the great masters of English prose. There 
were other writers whose books were eagerly read : John 
Greenleaf Whittier, poet, a man of Quaker birth who had a 
zeal for pure religion and for freedom, and whose poems 
were a trumpet call; Oliver Wendell Holmes, poet and wit; 
William Gilmore Simms, novelist; James Kussell Lowell, poet 
and satirist, whose Bigloio Papers helped people to under- 
stand the meaning of the Mexican War, while they laughed 
over the verses ; and others by whom American literature be- 
came a distinct voice of the nation. 

Now, when the Whig administration under Eillmore was 
coming to an end, a book appeared which was, for the time, 
more widely read throughout the world than any other. 
This book was Uncle Tom''s Cabin, by Mrs. Harriet Beecher 
Stowe.^ It was a story written to show what slavery was, and 
what it meant in the lives of men and women, white and 
black, in the Southern States of the Union. It went home to 
the hearts and minds of people ; they laughed and cried over 
it by turns. In vain the Southern people said that it was not 
a true picture of life at the South. It was a great story, and 
people believed it. Before this book appeared, slavery had 
come to be discussed publicly in Congress and in the news- 
papers. Now it was talked about in every home in the North, 
as well as in many in the South. 

1 Mrs. Stowe (born June 14, 1811) was the daughter of a famous Congrega- 
tionalist preacher, Lyman Beecher, who had a still more famous preacher for 
his son in Henry Ward Beecher. There was a large family, and Harriet, when 
her father moved from Massachusetts to Cincinnati, at first taught in her 
sister's school, and then married Professor Calvin E. Stowe, a professor in 
the theological seminary of which her father was president. In Cincinnati, 
she was in the midst of an antislavery society, and was constantly reminded 
by escaping slaves of the terrors of the system. She went with her husband 
to Bowdoin College, when he was made professor there. She had for some 
time written short stories and sketches ; but now she was eager to bear her 
testimony against slavery, and she wrote Uncle Tom's Cabin, which appeared 
first in a newspaper. The book made her famous, and she entered with 
religious earnestness into the cause of antislavery ; but she was also a natural 
story-teller, and during a long life she sent forth a long list of stories, sketches, 
and poems. She died in Hartford, July 1, 1896. 



TUE MIDDLE OF THE CENTURY. 337 



QUESTIONS. 

When was the corner stone of the extension of the Capitol laid ? What 
new department of the administration was then formed ? Who were the 
men of science who inaugurated the telegraph ? Give some account of 
the extension of railroads. What exploring expeditions were sent out 
by the government in the middle of the century ? What great impetus 
was given to immigration ? Name the great sources of supply. What 
invention greatly affected agriculture ? What were some of the difficul- 
ties encountered in the government of cities ? What effect had immigra- 
tion on slavery? What were some of the social developments of the 
time ? What was the lyceum system ? What can you say of the news- 
paper of the day ? Name the group of American authors who constitute 
the older and now classic group. What one book in particular aroused 
attention ? 

SEARCH QUESTIONS. 

What use is now made of the old senate chamber in the Capitol? 
What was the first public dispatch sent by Morse? Name the most 
important piece of literature contributed by each writer mentioned in 
Paragraph 175. Why should the poor man in Europe wish to go out into 
the American prairies ? 

SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. 

Compositions : 

An account of the exploration of the South Pole. 

What a model newspaper would be. 

S. F. B. Morse and his trials and success as an inventor. 

The story of Perry's success in Japan. 

An account of one of Hawthorne's books that I have read. 

The railroads of to-day compared with those of sixty years ago. 

Debates : 

Eesolved, That it is wise for the general government to restrict immi- 
gration by the exclusion of paupers and the illiterate. 

Eesolved, That electricity is of more value to man than steam. 
z 



CHAPTER XX. 

THE APPROACHING CONFLICT. 
Topeka (to-pe'ka). Osawatomie (6s-a-w6t'6-me). Taney (ta'nl). 

176. Pierce's Administration. — In 1852, Franklin Pierce of 
New Hampshire, who was the Democratic candidate, was 
elected President. At this election General Winfield Scott 
was the candidate of the Whigs, and it was the last contest 
in which this party appeared with a candidate for President. 
During the administration of Pierce, the first treaty of peace, 
amity, and commerce was concluded between the United 
States and Japan; and an expedition was fitted out under 
command of Elisha Kent Kane, to search in the Arctic seas for 
Sir John Franklin.^ But all other affairs were subordinate to 
the great affair which was looming up before the nation. 

177. The Kansas-Nebraska Contest The abolitionists had 

demanded immediate emancipation. The large body of anti- 
slavery people at the North admitted that the Constitution 
protected slavery in the States then known as the slave States, 
and so directed their efforts to limit the bounds of slave terri- 
tory. When the rapid expansion of the country beyond the 

1 Sir John Franklin was an English Arctic explorer who, after two suc- 
cessful expeditions, set out on a third, in 1845, hoping to make the northwest 
passage. After three years, nothing being heard, search parties began to be 
sent out ; and from 1848 to 1859 at least twenty-one parties continued to search 
for the missing men. As late as 1880, a private expedition from the United 
States continued the search. Definite evidence was secured of the death of 
Franklin and many of the crew. The spirit of sacrifice which was displayed 
by the heroic endeavor to rescue Franklin was a notable characteristic of 
America and England during this period, and gave a great impetus to Arctic 
exploration. Tennyson married Sir John's niece. Kane's account of his 
expedition is a spirited book. 

338 _„.., 



THE APPBOACHING CONFLICT. 



339 



Missouri made it necessary to organize governments there, 
that country became the battle ground where the forces of 
slavery and antislavery met. The contest was both on the 
floor of Congress and in the country itself. 

Stephen Arnold Douglas, a senator from Illinois, introduced 
a bill for organizing the territories of Kansas and Nebraska. 
This bill assumed that 
the Compromise of 1850 
had repealed the Mis- 
souri Compromise. It 
gave to the territories 
which were north of 36° 
30' the right to decide, 
by vote of their inhabi- 
tants, whether they w^ere 
to be slave or free States. 
A sharp debate followed, 
and old party lines were 
broken up. The mem- 
bers who opposed the 
bill were called Anti- 
Nebraska men. 

The bill was ■^^^^• 
passed, and the people 
at the North at once be- 
gan organizing compa- 
nies of emigrants.2 They meant to settle the question of 

1 Frankliu Pierce was born at Hillsborough, New Hampshire, November 23, 
1804. His father was governor of the State. The son was a fellow-student 
at Bowdoin College with Hawthorne and Longfellow ; and Hawthorne, who 
was warmly attached to him, wrote a sketch of his friend when he was a 
candidate for the Presidency. Pierce became a lawyer, and for a brief period 
was a member of Congress, successively in the House and Senate ; he also 
served in the Mexican War, where he rose to the rank of brigadier general. 
He made himself very unpopular at the North by his steadfast adherence to 
the policy of the proslavery party. He retired to private life after his Presi- 
dential term, and died October 8, 1869. 

2 See Whittier's poem, " The Kansas Emigrants." 




Franklin Pierce. 



340 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 

slavery in Kansas and Nebraska by being on the ground be- 
forehand. Large numbers of men went out with the expecta- 
tion of having to fight, and a comparatively small number of 
full families. The South wished to add the two territories as 
slave States ; but there was no widespread movement of emi- 
gration with slaves into the territories. The situation would 
plainly have been one of great peril to slaveholders, as regards 
the retaining of their slaves. 

The greatest sensitiveness was felt in Missouri, for if Kan- 
sas and Nebraska were to become free States, Missouri would 
be almost surrounded by populations inimical to slavery. From 
the western borders of that State, therefore, came men, not all 
slaveholders by any means, but with the attitude toward 
slavery naturally taken by those who had always lived in a 
slave State. Many came as frontier men, pushing the border 
farther westward. 

The Conflict in Kansas. — The greatest conflict was naturally 
in Kansas, and the struggle lasted with some interruptions 
until Kansas was admitted as a State. It was at the polls 
that the contest began. The Missouri ans came in crowds 
across the border, voted down the free-state men, and 
returned in triumph to their homes in Missouri. 
The result was the election of a territorial legislature by more 
than twice the number of legal voters in the territory. This 
legislature met at Lecompton, and proceeded to frame a pro- 
slavery constitution. The free-state men replied by holding 
a convention at Topeka, and framing a constitution hostile 
to slavery. There were now, therefore, two governments in 
the territory. The authorities at Washington threw their 
weight in favor of the supporters of the Lecompton consti- 
tution. 

A period of actual warfare followed. The town of Lawrence, 
which was the headquarters of the free-state men, was attacked, 
and some of its chief buildings were burned. Retaliation fol- 
lowed. One of the most conspicuous of the abolitionists, as the 
proslavery party termed the free-state men, was John Brown 



THE APPROACHING CONFLICT. 341 

of Osawatomie, as he was called, because of a famous fight at 
that place. He and his men at one time crossed into Missouri, 
destroyed considerable property, and set free some slaves. The 
IS orthern and Northwestern States continued to pour men into 
Kansas and Nebraska, and it soon became clear that there was 
an overwhelming majority in favor of making the territories 
free States. But the proslavery party also sent armed men 
in from Missouri at every election, and the administration at 
Washington upheld the government which these set up. 

The Contest in Congress. — The discussion in Congress grew 
more bitter, and the affairs in Kansas gave occasion for fre- 
quent debate. There was a contest, which lasted two months, 
over the choice of speaker of the House of Representatives. 
It resulted in the election of N. P. Banks of Massachusetts, 
an Anti-Nebraska man. It became clear that the one question 
of the day was the momentous one of slavery or antislavery. 

178. Nicaragua and Cuba. — It illustrates the instinctive 
demand of the South for more territory in which the system 
of slavery could have free play, that a company of Southern 
men under William Walker in 1852 formed an expedition with 
the purpose of conquering Nicaragua and reestablishing slavery 
in Central America; and that Southern politicians made an 
effort in 1854 to secure the purchase of Cuba by the United 
States, threatening forcible possession of Cuba if Spain would 
not sell. 

179. Buchanan's Administration. — In the election of 1856 the 
Democratic party was again successful, and James Buchanan^ 

1 James Buchanan spent his life in political service. He was born near 
Mercersburg, Pennsylvania, April 23, 1791, and was educated at Dickinson 
College. He became a lawyer, and had immediate success. In 1820 he became 
a member of Congress, and continued to represent Pennsylvania till 1831. 
The next year he was sent by Jackson as minister to Russia, where he nego- 
tiated the first treaty of commerce between the United States and Russia. 
On his return from Russia, he was elected to the Senate, and held his seat 
there till 1845, when he was appointed Secretary of State by President Polk. 
He went back into private life during the Whig administration which followed ; 
but when Pierce was chosen President, Buchanan was sent as minister to Eng- 
land. He died at his place, Wheatlands, in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, June 1, 1868. 



342 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 



of Pennsylvania was chosen President. But John C. Fremont, 
the candidate of the Republican party, as the Anti-Nebraska 
men now called themselves, had nearly as many votes. There 
was so much enthusiasm over Fremont that the leaders at the 
South became more than ever convinced that power was passing 
from those who defended slavery to those who opposed it. 

180. The Dred Scott Decision. — But a decision by the Supreme 
Court of the United States gave them new confidence. It was 

in the case of the negro 
named Dred Scott, whose 
master had taken him 
from the slave State of 
Missouri to the free 
State of Illinois and 
thence to the territory 
of Minnesota, where he 
remained for some years. 
After being taken back 
to Missouri, and sold, 
Scott sued for his lib- 
erty, on the plea that, 
having resided on free 
soil, he had become a 
free man. Chief Justice 
Taney delivered the de- 
cision of the Court, which 
was to the effect that a 
negro was not a citizen, 
and therefore could not sue in the United States courts. 
Furthermore, the Court expressed the opinion that slaves were 
not persons in the eyes of the law, but things ; that Congress 
had no more right to prevent slaveholders from carrying their 
slaves into any State or territory and holding them there, 
than it had to forbid them from carrying horses or any other 
property. This decision seemed to place the Constitution, and 
hence the law, on the side of slavery. But it was so startling 




James Bnchanan, 



THE APPROACHING CONFLICT. 



343 



to those who had not been brought up in the slave States, that 
it deepened the antislavery feeling throughout the North. 

181. John Brown's Raid. — Minnesota became a State in 
1858, and Oregon in 1859. In this year John Brown collected 
a small body of men, white and black, in the moun- 
tains of Maryland. He made a sudden attack upon -.Vprq ' 
Harper's Ferry, where there was a United States 
arsenal, which he seized and held for a few hours. The attack 




Harper's Ferry. 



was a direct assault upon slavery. Brown had resolved to 
carry the war into what he regarded as the enemy's country, 
and he expected to see the slaves flock to his standard. There 
were few at the North who knew of his purpose; and the 
country. North and South, was amazed at the act. John 
Brown was wounded and taken prisoner ; some of his associ- 
ates were killed, and some were taken with him. He was 
tried by the State of Virginia, sentenced, and hanged. His 
action was generally condemned by the people, but many de- 
clared him a martyr to freedom, and accused slavery of pro- 
voking him to the deed. His act, moreover, deepened the 



344 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 

feeling of the South that the North was in a hostile attitude ; 
and public opinion at the South held the North responsible for 
Brown's movement. 

182. The Election of Lincoln. — The Democratic national con- 
vention met at Charleston in April, 1860, but being unable to 
agree on a candidate, it adjourned to meet in Baltimore in 
June. When the convention reassembled, it was found that 
there were irreconcilable differences between the Northern 
and Southern wings of the party. As a result, the conven- 
tion divided; the delegates from the Northern States nomi- 
nated Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois, and those from the South 
named John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky. Doubtless this 
rupture of the Democratic party exerted a potent influence 
throughout the country, and was largely responsible for the 
result of the approaching election. The Eepublican party 
held its convention in Chicago, and nominated Abraham Lin- 
coln of Illinois. A fourth party, calling itself the Constitu- 
tional-Union party, nominated John Bell of Tennessee. 

Mr. Lincoln Avas in favor of prohibiting the extension of 
slavery by law, and Mr. Breckinridge favored its extension 
by law; the issue between these two candidates was clearly 
defined. Mr. Douglas, in harmony with his doctrine of " popu- 
lar sovereignty," advocated non-interference, while Mr. Bell 
made the preservation of the Union the keynote of his cam- 
paign. An exciting and memorable canvass followed. The 
result showed that the Republican party had carried every 
free State except New Jersey ; Abraham Lincoln was to be 
the next President, and Hannibal Hamlin of Maine Vice 
President. 

QUESTIONS. 

Name two incidents of Pierce's administration. What was the bill 
introduced by Douglas ? Narrate what took place on the passage of the 
bill. How was the conflict in Kansas carried on at the polls? What 
were the rival governments in the territory ? Who was John Brown ? 
What contest arose in Congress ? What filibustering expedition took 
place ? Who were the candidates for the Presidency in 1856 ? Who was 



THE APPROACHING CONFLICT. 345 

elected ? What was the Dred Scott decision ? Narrate John Brown's 
raid. Who were the candidates for the Presidency in 18G0 ? What issues 
did they represent ? Who was elected ? 

SEARCH QUESTIONS. 

What was the Ostend Manifesto ? Name some of the polar expeditions 
since that of Kane. What was the Emigrant Aid Society ? Who was 
governor of Virginia when John Brown was tried ? What saying by 
Judge Taney at the time of the Dred Scott decision stirred up great 
excitement ? Name some famous poems directed against slavery. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. 

Compositions : 

An account of the attack on Lawrence. 

An account of Walker's expedition. 

Lincoln's boyhood. 

The Underground Railroad. 

An account of Nansen's search for the North Pole. 

An account of the Lincoln-Douglas debate. 

The story of Dred Scott. 

Debates : 

Hesolved, That John Brown's raid was the act of a fanatic. 

Besolved, That expeditions in search of the North Pole are of no bene- 
fit to mankind. 

Besolved, That a citizen should stand by his State rather than by the 
Union. 



CHAPTER XXI. 

SECESSION. 

Beauregard (bo'r^-gard). I terms agreed on ; used of an army 

Capit'ulate. To surrender upon | or a garrison. 

183. Southern Political Character. — During the discussion 
which preceded the election, the people of the North heard 
repeated threats from the South that if the Republican party 
were successful, the slaveholding States would leave the 
Union. They refused to believe these threats. They thought 
them only the angry declamation of a few heated politi- 
cians. Yet the threats were sincere. The voters of the South 
had learned to look upon the North as thoroughly hostile to 
the South. They made little distinction between the Republi- 
can party and the abolitionists, and they felt instinctively that 
an administration elected in a spirit of opposition to slavery 
would find many ways to injure it. 

The political habits and the ways of life in the South made 
it easier for Southern voters to believe in disunion as a cure 
for the evils which they were sure had come upon them. The 
doctrine of State Sovereignty had become familiar ; it had been 
laid down in the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions of 1798, 
and had been upheld by Georgia in the difficulty with the 
Indians, and by South Carolina in its Nullification Act. The 
concentration of political power in a comparatively small num- 
ber of persons in each State, who acted together, made it still 
easier for them to think of the State by itself rather than as a 
part of the Union. 

346 



SECESSION. 347 

In fact, the older Southern States kept the character which 
they had when they were colonies of Great Britain more dis- 
tinctly than the older Northern States. They were still plant- 
ing States ; they still had their own social life ; the same 
families lived upon the same estates. There was no such 
constant movement from one State to another as in the North, 
nor any such introduction of immigrants from Europe. They 
were Carolinians or Virginians rather than Americans. 

184. The Secession Conventions. — South Carolina took the 
lead in fulfilling the promise of secession. As soon as it was 
known that Mr. Lincoln was to be the next President, the 
senators from South Carolina and all officeholders in the 
State under the Federal government resigned. The 
legislature called a State convention, and on the 20th ,ggQ ' 
of December the convention unanimously passed an 
ordinance of secession. The ordinance bore the title: "An 
Ordinance to dissolve the union between the State of South 
Carolina and other States united with her in the compact 
entitled the Constitution of the United States." A copy of 
the ordinance was sent to each of the slave States, and com- 
missioners were appointed to arrange with the Federal govern- 
ment the terms of dissolution. 

The example of South Carolina was followed by Mississippi, 
Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas, all 
of which passed ordinances of secession. The question ^q^' 
was not submitted to the people ; it was the action of 
the States in popular conventions, a political method universal 
at the time of the adoption of the Constitution, and most 
familiar in Southern usage; the action of these conventions 
was unanimous only in the case of South Carolina, and after- 
ward of North Carolina. 

In February, 1861, a convention of delegates from the six 
States that had then seceded, met at Montgomery, Alabama, 
and formed a government under the name of the Confederate 
States of America. The constitution adopted was mainly that 
of the United States, except that it made careful provision for 



348 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 



'■"^- •^-■vx"-^^^ 




slavery, and forbade a protective tariff. Jefferson Davis,^ of 
Mississippi, was cliosen President, and Alexander H. Stephens, 
of Georgia, Vice President. 

185. The Seizure of the Forts. —In bringing about the act of 
secession, the political leaders at the South were not all bent 

on breaking up the 
Union. They exercised 
what they regarded as a 
constitutional right and 
reasoned that they could 
make better terms over 
slavery out of the Union 
than in it. But since the 
States taking part in se- 
cession were acting as 
sovereign States, they at 
once took measures to 
obtain possession of the 
arsenals, forts, and other 
property of the United 
States within their bor- 
ders. 

The United States 
army was scattered at 
distant posts; but the 
larger part was in Texas, under General Twiggs, who obeyed 
the command of the Confederate States to surrender his forces. 



Jefferson Davis. 



1 Jefferson Davis was born in Christian County, Kentucky, not a hundred 
miles from Lincoln's birthplace, June 3, 1808, and was thus nearly of the same 
age. He was graduated at West Point in 1828, but resigned from the army 
in 1835. After that his career was in politics, except that he served in the 
Mexican War. He was a member of Congress from Mississippi in 1845, and in 
1847 he became United States Senator, but resigned in 1851, and was candidate 
for the governorship of his State. He was defeated, and at once was reelected 
to the Senate. In 1853 he again resigned, to become Secretary of War under 
Pierce, and at the end of his term Went back to the Senate, where he was 
found when the secession movement came. He was an uncompromising 
adherent to Calhoun's doctrines. 



SECESSION. 



349 



, CHARLESTON IIAKBOU 

AND APPROACHES 
Scale of ===i==i 2MUea 




,U>,FOLLY 



Jlattet y 



The forts tlirongliont the South were mainly in the hands of 
Southern men, who delivered them to the new authorities. The 
commanders of Fort Pickens at Pensacola, and of the forts at 
Key West and Tortugas, refused to give them up. 

The greatest interest attached to the forts within the borders 
of South Carolina. The harbor of Charleston was commanded 
by Forts Sumter and Moultrie and Castle Pinckney. Fort Sum- 
ter was not yet finished, but 
a garrison, under Major liob- 
ert Anderson, a Kentuckian, 
was occupying Fort Moultrie, 
which was a Aveaker work. 
On the night of the 26th of 
December, Major Anderson 
secretly transferred his men 
and supplies to Fort Sumter. 

South Carolina demanded 
the evacuation of the fort. 
President Buchanan refused 
the demand, and determined 
to provision the fort ; for this 
purpose he sent the steamer. 
Star of the West, with sup- 
plies and reenforcements. He 
intended the expedition to be 
a secret one, but it was known 
at once in Charleston, and 
the steamer, when it appeared, was fired upon and driven back. 
The South Carolinians had taken possession of the 
other forts in Charleston harbor, and now erected ad- 1351' 
ditional works. They planned these for the defense 
of the harbor against United States vessels, but especially in 
order to attack Fort Sumter. They placed General P. G. T. 
Beauregard in command of the harbor defenses. 

186. Efforts at Conciliation. — Seven of the slaveholding 
States had seceded ; the rest hesitated. The North, and many 




350 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 

in the South who loved the Union, clung desperately to the 
hope that disunion might yet be averted. Men of all parties 
joined in efforts to bring about a return to harmony. Presi- 
dent Buchanan was filled with perplexity. He could not exe- 
cute the laws in the seceding States, and Congress gave him 
no help. He denied the right of the States to secede ; he also 
denied the right of the government to coerce them when they 
did secede. His Cabinet was divided. The Southern members 
dropped out as their States seceded. 

In Congress, one measure after another was proposed in 
hopes of staying the tide. Mr. Seward, a senator from New 
York, and the most conspicuous of the Republicans, was willing 
to give up congressional prohibition of slavery in the terri- 
tories, to enforce the Fugitive-Slave Law, and to perpetuate 
slavery by a constitutional amendment. The Southern sena- 
tors and representatives left their seats in Congress as fast 
as their States seceded, and a Republican majority was thus 
obtained. Congress now admitted Kansas as a State, 
■ and passed a protective tariff bill designed to encour- 
age manufactures. Resolutions intended to pacify the South 
were passed by both houses. 

Great meetings were held in the cities, denouncing abolition- 
ism, and urging extreme concession to the South. Prominent 
journals of both parties declared that armed coercion was mad- 
ness, and never would be permitted. A Peace Conference, 
called by Virginia, met at Washington in February.^ The dele- 
gates, who came from all the States that had not seceded, tried 
to bring about harmony between the sections. 

The State of Public Opinion. — The people throughout the 
country were in a state of bewilderment. The men in 
authority seemed to have no power to direct affairs. The 
Union appeared to be going to pieces, and already were heard 
plans of what would be done when the division came. The 
South had so often seen the North yield, when the question 
of slavery was pressed, that it stood firm; it expected to 

1 It was presided over by ex-President Tyler. 



SECESSION. 



351 



have its own way. The administration of Mr. Buchanan was 
to cease on the 4th of March. A President was then to come 
into office whose election had been made the occasion of the 
secession of seven States. Threats were uttered that he would 
not be allowed to take the oath of office, but Mr. Lincoln 
escaped danger by entering the capital unexpectedly after a 
journey from his home in Springfield, Illinois. 




:#*'^^^^;^; 



Lincoln's Birthplace. 

187. Abraham Lincoln was a man who had not, heretofore, had 
large experience in important official positions. He was born 
February 12, 1809, in Hardin County, Kentucky. His parents 
were poor, and his father, who was of a roving disposition, took 
his family in 1816 to Indiana, and there they lived until 
Lincoln was twenty-one, when they moved again to Illinois. 
He received meager schooling, but pored long over a few books, 
— ^sop's Fables, a life of Washington, Burns, Shakespeare, 



352 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 

and the Bible.^ He worked hard with his hands as a young man, 
splitting rails, and he learned the surveyor's art. He kept 
store also, but he had little interest in money-making. At one 
time he was one of the owners of a flatboat that floated down 
to New Orleans.^ In 1832 occurred the Indian outbreak, when 
Black Hawk, an Indian chief, crossed the Mississippi with a 
band of Indians and entered Illinois. Lincoln volunteered as 
a soldier and was elected captain of his company. 

Finally he took up the study of law and began practice when 
he was twenty-eight. He took a keen interest in politics and 
was shortly after elected a member of the Illinois legislature, 
and for one term was a member of Congress. But he was best 
known in his own State as a forcible public speaker, and he won 
great distinction in a series of debates which he held in 1858 
with Douglas, when they were both candidates for the United 
States Senate. Lincoln was defeated in the election, but in the - 
speech which he made when he was nominated for the Senate, 
he had said : " ' A house divided against itself cannot stand.' 
I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave 
and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved. I 
do not expect the house to fall ; but I do expect it will cease to 
be divided. It will become all one thing, or all the other." 

These words were often repeated by others, and they served 
to indicate where Lincoln stood on the great question which 
was profoundly stirring the nation. The public men of the 
East, who knew him but little, were at first perplexed by 

1 " His chief delight during the day, if unmolested, was to lie down under 
the shade of some inviting tree to read and study. At night, lying on his 
stomach in front of the open fireplace, with a piece of charcoal, he would cipher 
on a broad wooden shovel. When the latter was covered over on both sides, he 
would take his father's drawing knife or plane and shave it off clean, ready 
for a fresh supply of inscriptions the next day. He often moved about the 
cabin with a piece of chalk, writing and ciphering on boards and the flat sides 
of hewn logs." — Herndon's Lincoln. 

2 It was while in New Orleans that Lincoln saw the sale of a mulatto girl, 
and was so revolted by the sight that he said to his companions : " Boys, let's 
get away from this. If ever I get a chance to hit that thing [that is, slavery], 
I'll hit it hard." — Herndon's Lincoln. 



SECESSION, 353 

his habit of listening to what everybody said without ex- 
pressing his own conclusions. They feared he lacked decision 
of character, but it was not long before it was seen that he had 
the great qualities of a leader who not only knew his own 
mind, but the mind of the peox^le he was leading.^ The Presi- 
dent of the Confederacy was a graduate of the United States 
Military Academy, who had achieved distinction as an officer in 
the Mexican War, and as Secretary of War, under President 
Pierce. He was a man familiar with public affairs. 

The Condition of the Country. — Mr. Lincoln, upon taking the 
President's chair, found the government in great confusion. 
The treasury was nearly empty. There were but few troops 
within call. Military stores were largely in Southern forts and 
arsenals. The vessels of the navy were scattered in distant 
waters, and officers both of the army and of the navy were 
resigning their commissions on the ground that they owed 
allegiance first to the States from which they came. The 
public offices were largely occupied by persons in sympathy 
with the secession movement, and every step taken by the new 
government was known at once to the leaders of the Confed- 
eracy. Mr. Lincoln, meanwhile, was beset by a vast horde of 
office seekers, eager to take advantage of the change of adminis- 
tration. 

188. The Attack on Sumter. — President Lincoln waited a 
month, and then notified Governor Pickens, of South Carolina, 
that he should send supplies to Fort Sumter at all hazards. 
Thereupon General Beauregard asked instructions from the 
government at Montgomery, and was ordered to open fire on 
the fort. He first called on Major Anderson to surrender; 
but Anderson refused, and at daybreak on the morning of 
Friday, April 12, 1861, the Confederacy began its attack on 
the United States. 

1 There are many lives of Lincoln, but no one that is at once brief and ade- 
quate. Perhaps the most satisfactory sketch is that by Carl Schurz. Chitten- 
den's Recollections of President Lincoln and his Administration gives well 
the human side of the great man. A readable story, The GraT/sons, by Edward 
Eggleston, has Lincoln for a prominent figure in it. 
2a 



354 DEVELOPMENT QF THE UNION. 

The first shot was fired from the Cumming's Point battery. 
Fort Sumter replied with a shot, and the bombardment thus 
begun continued for thirty hours without loss of life on either 
side. The ammunition in Fort Sumter was then exhausted, and 
the fort was on fire. Thereupon the United States flag was 
lowered, and the garrison capitulated. The housetops in 
Charleston were thronged with spectators, and the telegrai)h 
carried news of the engagement hourly over all the land. On 
Sunday, April 14th, the garrison marched out. 

On the morning of the 15th President Lincoln issued a proc- 
lamation calling for seventy-five thousand volunteers, to serve 
for three months, and summoning Congress to meet in extra 
session. The response to the demand for troops was imme- 
diate; distinctions of party were swept aside, and for a time 
there was but one party at the North, — the party for the 
Union. 

189. The Marshaling of the Opposing Forces. — Immediately 
the States of the South which had wavered were compelled to 
make their choice. Arkansas, North Carolina, Virginia, and 
Tennessee joined the Confederacy. There was a strong anti- 
Union element in Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Mis- 
souri ; but, though many men went from these States into the 
Confederate army, the States did not break away from the 
Union. 

The high table-land of the Appalachian range, which is the 
backbone of the eastern part of the Union, was unfavorable to 
slave labor; it was occupied by a sturdy mountain folk, and 
throughout the war a vigorous Union sentiment prevailed 
there, especially in east Tennessee and west Virginia. 

Virginia was the most important accession to the Con^ 
federacy. There was, however, in the western counties so 
strong an opposition to secession, that these counties refused 
to obey the convention which passed the ordinance of secession ; 
they chose a legislature which claimed to be the true governr 
ment, and at last formed a new State, which was admitted into 
the Union in 1863 under the name of West Virginia. 



SECESSION. 



355 



Old Virginia at once became the cliief battle ground of 
the war. The Confederate government was moved from Mont- 
gomery to Eichmond; and since Washington was separated 
from the Confederacy only by the Potomac, it was clear that 
the great contest would be fought in the country which lay 




between the two capitals. Throughout the war which fol- 
lowed, the Southern people called themselves Confederates; the 
Northern people called themselves Unionists. These names 
are full of meaning. The contest was between the Confed- 
eracy and the Union ; for, little by little, the Southern people 
had strengthened themselves in the belief that the weak union 
of the days of the formation of the Constitution was a confed- 
eration of sovereign States; the Northern people had grown 
to the conception of a Nation which included all the States in 
an inseparable Union. 



356 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 



QUESTIONS. 

Why did the North disbelieve threats of secession ? What had led the 
South to entertain the thought of secession ? What State took the lead 
in carrying out the promise of secession ? What other States followed 
her lead ? What general government was formed at the South ? What 
was the first governmental act in opposition to the United States ? What 
forts came into the hands of the Southern States ? What forts in the 
South remained in the possession of the United States ? Narrate the 
action that took place with regard to the forts in Charleston harbor. 
What was Buchanan's position ? What attempts were made at concilia- 
tion in Congress ? What was the Peace Conference ? What was the 
condition of affairs on the eve of President Lincoln's inauguration ? 
Narrate the incidents of Mr. Lincoln's life before he was elected Presi- 
dent. What had been Jefferson Davis's antecedents ? In what condi- 
tion did President Lincoln find the country when he took ofiice ? Relate 
the incidents connected with the attack on Sumter, What was the imme- 
diate effect on the country ? What effect did the attack on Sumter have 
on the South ? What action did Virginia take ? Where in the South 
was there a sentiment for the Union ? What were the names the two 
opposing sections gave each other and themselves ? 

SEARCH QUESTIONS. 

How did President Lincoln enter Washington ? What was the Con- 
federate flag ? Where was the first capital of the Confederacy ? the 
second ? On which side was ex-President Tyler in the war ? What 
became of the various members of President Buchanan's Cabinet ? 

SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. 
Compositions : 

The tiring on Fort Sumter. 

What President Jackson would have done if he had been in Buchan- 
an's place. 

The remote and the immediate causes of the war for the Union. 

Arguments of those who believed slavery to be right. 

Arguments of those who believed slavery to be wrong. 

Debates : 

Besolved, That a way out of the difficulty would have been the pur- 
chase and freeing of slaves by the appropriation of money raised by 
taxation from the whole country. 

Besolved, That the States have no right to secede from the Union. 



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WAR FOR THE UNION 

SCALE OF STATUTE MILES 



V b from Washington 5 



CHAPTER XXII. 

THE WAR FOR THE UNION. i I. 



Con'fis-cate. To take an enemy's 

goods for public use. 
Clan-des'tine. Secret. 
San Jacinto (san ja-sin'to). 



Rap-pa-h an'no ck. 
Rap-i-dan'. 
Shen-an-do'-ah. 
Antietam (an-te't3,m). 



190. Relative Strength of the Two Sections. — The people of 
the North were an unmilitary people. They had a militia, but 
it was ill organized. The Mexican War had drawn few volun- 
teers from this section, and the United States army was very 
small and imperfectly equipped. The early action of the Con- 
federates also had weakened it. There was, however, a greater 
population to draw from than at the South. There was also a 
wider range of industry to supply the necessary funds to carry 
on the war. The South relied largely upon the need which 
England had of her cotton. Her young men had led lives 
more akin to a military life ; and she reasoned that they could 
all fight, while the slaves stayed at home to support them. 

President Lincoln's call for troops was met by a correspond- 
ing call from Jefferson Davis ; and from North and South men 
hastened to the banks of the Potomac. Eegiments were hur- 
riedly equipped and sent forward. The first blood was shed 
in the streets of Baltimore, April 19, 1861, the anniversary of 
the battles of Lexington and Concord, when Northern troops 

1 Perhaps the most compact and unpartisan account of the war from a mili- 
tary point of view is Colonel Dodge's A Blrd's-Eye View of Our Civil War. 
It is fairly well furnished with maps. TheVe is a whole library of books and 
articles that may be consulted. 

357 



358 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION, 



• 



were attacked by a mob whicli opposed their passage through 
the city.^ 

191. The Battle of Bull Run. — General Scott was the com- 
mander of the Union forces, and General J. E. Johnston of 
the Confederate forces. The first military movements were 
in the mountains of western Virginia, and the success of the 
Union army led people to fancy that there would be a quick 
restoration of the Union. The newspapers, and people gener- 
ally, urged an immediate movement upon Kichmond. Very 
few had any knowledge of the difficulties before them, and 
General Scott, pressed by public opinion, gave the order to 
advance. The result was the battle of Bull Run, July 21, in 
which the Union forces were defeated, and retreated in a panic 
upon Washington. 

General McClellan in Command. — The disaster opened the 
eyes of x^eople, and the country settled down into a mora 
serious temper. Congress took measures to raise money for 
the army and navy. It called for five hundred thousand vol- 
unteers; it ordered a blockade of the Southern ports, and 
pledged itself to vote any amount of money and any number 
of men to maintain the Union. General Scott retired on 
account of his age and infirmity, and General George B. 
McClellan,^ who had been prominent in the western Virginia 

1 Very early in the war volunteer organizations for the aid of tlie army 
and navy were formed all over the country. Depots of supplies were es- 
tablished and many hospitals set up independent of the army. Besides 
the local societies there were two very efficient national organizations, the 
United States Sanitary Commission and the United States Christian Com- 
mission. As one result of a humane character following upon the war, the 
science of medicine and surgery took from this time a great advance in the 
United States. 

2 George Brinton McClellan was born at Philadelphia, December 3, 1826. 
He was for two years a student in the University of Virginia, but in 1842 he 
became a cadet at West Point, where he was the youngest in his class. He 
made his mark, however, for, on graduating in 184G, he stood second in general 
rank, and first in engineering. He engaged in the Mexican War, and took 
part in the siege of Vera Cruz, along with Lee and Beauregard. He was 
brevetted captain, and after the war he was employed by the government in 
surveys beyond the Mississippi. When the Crimean" War occurred, Captain 



THE WAR FOR THE UNION. 



359 




George Brinton McOlellan. 

McClellan was one of a commission sent by the United States government to 
examine the military systems of Europe, and to report on the better organ- 
ization of the American army. He made an important report, on his return, 
and then retired from the service, and became president of the Ohio and 
Mississippi Railroad. He was living in Cincinnati when the war broke out, 
and the governor of Ohio at once commissioned him major general of the Ohio 
militia. He had most winning qualities and an unblemished character, so 
that he attached every one who came in contact with him. Near the close of 
the war, he became the Democratic candidate for the Presidency. He was 
elected governor of New Jersey in 1877, and died at Orange, in that State, 
October 29, 1885. 



360 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 

operations, was placed in command. He immediately set about 
organizing the Army of the Potomac, at Alexandria, in prep- 
aration for a second advance. The Confederacy also spent 
the summer and autumn of 1861 in organizing its Army of 
Northern Virginia, under General Beauregard. 

192. The First Blow at Slavery Congress had passed an act 

confiscating property used in the insurrection, including any 
slaves employed in service hostile to the United States. General 
Fremont, who had been made commander of the forces in the 

West, issued a proclamation declaring the slaves of 
1 PR! ^^y person who had taken up arms against the Union 

to be thereby freed from slavery. President Lincoln 
countermanded this order. He was unwilling to estrange those 
slaveholders, especially in Kentucky, who were still loyal to the 
Union. He was, besides, not ready, and he did not believe the 
people were ready, to regard the war for the Union as a war 
to put down slavery. Some of the Union commanders even' 
went so far as to send back slaves who had left their masters 
and had come into the Union lines.-^ 

193. The South and Europe Congress had declared the 

Southern ports blockaded, but it could not at once bring 
together a navy large enough to keep vessels from entering 
or leaving those ports. The South not only sent out vessels 
laden with cotton to the West Indies and to Europe, but 
received in return military supplies of all kinds. Of course 
the great bulk of business between the North and the South 
had stopped, although much clandestine traffic and correspond- 
ence went on across the borders. 

The South had never had manufactures to any extent, and 

1 One of the most ingenious solutions of the troublesome problem of dealing 
with slavery in the region occupied by troops was that devised by General 
B. F. Butler, who was in command at Fortress Monroe, Virginia, in the summer 
of 1861. Shortly after the secession of Virginia, some runaway slaves came 
into his camp, and the Virginian authorities demanded that they should be 
given up. Butler refused on the ground that they were " contraband of war." 
The term was caught up, and not only during the war, but for some time after, 
" contraband " was a familiar name for the negro.' 



THE WAR FOR THE UNION. 361 

had no variety of resources. Heretofore she had sold her cot- 
ton, rice, tobacco, and sugar to the Northern States and Europe, 
and bought in return what she needed. It was to Europe now 
that she looked for help. The commercial and manufacturing 
countries of Europe saw the opportunity to increase their trade. 
English merchants, especially, were quick to take advantage of 
it, and the ports of English islands lying near the Southern 
States became at once very busy. 

194. The Trent Affair and the Alabama. — England and France 
issued proclamations of neutrality, and the Confederacy was 
very desirous of being recognized by them as an independent 
power. Mr. Mason and Mr. Slidell, formerly United States 
senators, were therefore sent by the Confederacy as com- 
missioners to London and Paris. They made their way to 
Havana, and at that port embarked on the English mail 
steamer Trent. After the Trent had left the harbor, Captain 
Charles Wilkes, of the United States steamship San 
Jacinto, who had been watching for them, stopped the -.JZji ' 
steamer and carried off the commissioners. 

This act caused great excitement in England, and for a while 
there was danger that the United States would be at war 
with England as well as with the Confederacy. Such an event 
would have been full of peril. Moreover, Captain Wilkes 
had gone beyond his authority. The government, therefore, 
without censuring him, admitted that he was in the wrong, 
and gave up the commissioners to England. 

Great Britain did not recognize the independence of the 
Confederacy; but English shipbuilders and merchants built 
cruisers which were manned chiefly by British sailors, while 
commissioned by the Confederacy and commanded by Confed- 
erate officers. They often carried the British flag until they 
had come upon an unsuspecting vessel sailing from a Union 
port, when they made a prize of it. Great numbers of Ameri- 
can ships were thus captured or destroyed. The English gov- 
ernment shut its eyes when the Confederate cruisers used the 
British flag and sailed into and out of the British ports. It 



362 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 

was warned that one of these, the Alabama, which afterward 
did much mischief, had been built and equipped in Liverpool, 
and was about to sail. Everybody knew its purpose, but the 
government took no pains to stop the vessel. 

Attitude of Great Britain. — The promptness with which 
Great Britain prepared for war at the time of the Trent 
affair; the repeated expression of sympathy with the Con- 
federacy given by the ruling classes there; the indifference 
of the government, by which Confederate cruisers were 
allowed to be supplied and sent out of English ports to 
attack American vessels, — all these things served to estrange 
the United States from England. At the same time, not a 
few Englishmen had faith in the Union and advocated the 
unpopular Union cause. The cotton spinners of England, 
though they were brought to great distress by the closing 
of Southern ports, were very generally in sympathy with 
the Union. There were a few men of influence, also, who 
believed that the best hopes of man, both in England and in 
America, were bound up in the success of the Union. By 
speeches, by newspaper articles, and by other means, they 
aimed to keep Great Britain from recognizing the inde- 
pendence of the Confederacy.^ 

195. Forts Henry and Donelson. — The people at the North 
had grown impatient over the long delay to make a forward 
movement, and in January, 1862, President Lincoln ordered a 
general advance of land and naval forces. The order was 
earliest obeyed at the West. The Confederates had built 
Fort Henry on the Tennessee and Fort Donelson on the Cum- 
berland, to prevent access by river into the State of Tennes- 
see. The first attacks were made on these defenses. General 
Ulysses S. Grant ^ was in command of the land forces, and 

1 Among the strong supporters of the Union cause in Great Britain were 
John Bright, W. E. Forster, the Duke of Argyll, and Thomas Hughes, the 
author of Tom Broion's School Days. The Queen, also, strongly advised hy 
Prince Alhert, checked the rashness of the government. 

2 General Grant was born at Point Pleasant, Glenmont County, Ohio, 
April 27, 1822. His father, Jesse Root Grant, lived to a good old age, so that 



TBE WAR FOR THE UNION. 363 

Commodore Foote, of the gunboats, which undertook to reduce 
these works. 

Fort Henry was first assailed and captured ; the com- ^^oq ' 
bined forces then appeared before Fort Donelson, and 
after a succession of hard fights forced the commander to ask 
for terms. General Grant replied : " No terms except 
unconditional and immediate surrender can be ac- -f^gg ' 
cepted. I propose to move immediately upon your 
works." This terse declaration gave General Grant distinc- 
tion, and caused the country, eager to find a great military 
leader, to follow his career closely. 

196. The Battle of Shiloh. — Fort Donelson surrendered ; and 
the Confederate forces of the West, under General Albert 
Sidney Johnston, retired to Corinth, Mississippi. Here Gen- 
eral Johnston received reenforcements, and made a brilliant 
attack upon General Grant's army, which was lying at Pitts- 
burg Landing, or Shiloh, on the Tennessee River. A terrible 
battle was fought, in which the Confederates were at first 

he was able to follow the distinguished course of his sou. The name given to 
the future general and President was Hiram Ulysses, and when Jesse Grant 
secured for his son an appointment to West Point, by some accident the papers 
accompanying the application bore the name Ulysses Sidney Grant. The 
only change which the student could obtain was from Sidney to Simpson, 
his mother's maiden name, and thenceforward he wrote his name Ulysses 
Simpson Grant. He did not take high rank at West Point, where he was 
graduated in 1843, but in the Mexican War, which followed shortly after, he 
served under both Taylor and Scott and took part in every battle except 
Buena Vista. He won the title of captain by his gallantry. He was married 
to Miss Julia Dent in 1848, and spent four years with his wife in garrison in 
Sackett's Harbor and Detroit. He was ordered to the Pacific coast in 1852, 
and, forced to go alone, he wearied of the monotony of army life in peace, 
resigned his commission, and took up the occupation of farmer near St. Louis. 
Afterward, to better his fortunes, he went to Galena and joined his brothers 
in the trade of their father, who was a tanner. It was while he was living in 
Galena that the war broke out, and Grant raised a company of volunteers. 
Men of military training were in demand as officers, and after being appointed 
colonel of the Twenty-first Illinois regiment, he was promoted to the rank of 
brigadier general, and serving at first under Fremont, his military ability 
quickly pushed him to the front. His biography after this date belongs to 
general history, and will be found recorded in the text. 



364 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 







Ulysses Simpson Grant. 



victorious, but General Johnston was killed. When General 

April 6, 7, Buell joined General Grant with fresh forces, the 

1862. Union army attacked the Confederates and drove 

them back to Corinth. 

197. The Mississippi and New Orleans. — The Confederates 
April?, controlled the Mississippi by a series of fortified 
1862. positions extending from Columbus, Kentucky, to 

the Delta. When Fort Donelson was captured Columbus 



THE WAR FOR THE UNION. 365 

could no longer be held, and the Confederates retired to 
Island Number Ten. On the last day of the battle of Shiloh, 
this island was captured by Admiral Foote and 
General Pope. Two months later, Fort Pillow was -moo' 
abandoned by the Confederates, and after a daring 
attack by the river fleet, Memphis surrendered to the Union 
army. 

Meanwhile a fleet and an army had been sent to attack 
New Orleans. The fleet under Commodore David G. Farragut ' 
bombarded the forts at the entrance of the river, and 
passed them and the various obstructions which had ^q ' 
been placed in the way. After running a gauntlet of 
rams and fire rafts, the fleet appeared before New Orleans, 
which surrendered, and was placed under control of General 
Benjamin F. Butler. 

198. The Monitor and the Merrimac — In the East no such 
success had followed the Union arms. The Confederates had 
taken the Merrimac, a former frigate of the United States 
navy, which had fallen into their hands, and sheathed her 
with railroad iron, giving her also an iron prow. The curious 
monster, transformed thus into a ram, was ready for use, and 
came out of Gosport Navy Yard, accompanied by three gun- 

1 Farragut was the first admiral of the United States navy, that rank 
having been created during the war. He was born near Knoxville, Tennessee, 
July 5, 1801. He was but nine years old when he entered the navy, and was 
on the Essex in 1812 with Captain David Porter, who was his godfather. He 
spent his life at sea. In 1825 he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant, 
in 1841 he became commander, and in 1855 captain. He was at Norfolk when 
the war broke out, and as both by birth and marriage he was connected with 
the South, his neighbors expected him to throw in his lot with the Confederacy. 
But Farragut had followed the flag for fifty years, and indignantly refused the 
offers made him. He went to Washington and held himself ready for orders 
from his government. He became one of the great figures in the war, and a 
favorite picture was that which represented him in the tops of his vessel, with 
his glass, giving orders as his fleet passed the forts near New Orleans. When 
the war was over, he went to Europe in the Franklin and was everywhere 
received with high honors. His rugged, kindly nature and great rectitude 
justly made him a hero with the people. He died at Portsmouth, New 
Hampshire, August 14, 1870. See his life by Captain Mahan. 



366 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 




David Glascoe Farragnt. 

boats, to attack the fleet which lay in Hampton Roads. The 
Merrimac destroyed the sloop of war Cumberland,^ and com- 
pelled the frigate Congress to surrender, and with the 
gunboats scattered the rest of the United States fleet. 
The greatest consternation followed at the North. 
It was supposed that every seaport would be at the mercy 
of the Merrimac. Suddenly the Monitor, a turreted ironclad 



March 8, 

1862. 



J See Longfellow's poem, "The Cumberland.* 



THE WAR FOR THE UNION. 



367 



vessel just finished for the Uuited States by Captain John 
Ericsson/ aj)peared on the scene and attacked the 
Merrimac. The Monitor was much the smaller vessel, -. ggo ' 
but in the sharp engagement which followed, she 
showed herself a formidable antagonist, and the "cheese box," 
as she was called, com- 
pelled the Merrimac to 
retire to Gosport. These 
encounters were remark- 
able as the first great 
engagements between 
ironclads and wooden 
vessels and between two 
ironclads. The results 
caused a revolution in 
the navies of the world, 
for all the great powers 
began at once the con- 
struction of iron and 
steel clad vessels. 

199. McClellan's Ad- 
vance. — The day after 
the fight of the Monitor 
and Merrimac, General 
McClellan began to move 
his forces against the enemy. He advanced on the way to 
Manassas, where the Confederate forces had been posted ; but 
General Joseph E. Johnston, who was in command, had fallen 

1 John Ericsson was born in Sweden, July 31, 1803. He early showed great 
inventive skill and was employed as an engineer in the Swedish service. He 
resigned in 1826 and went to England to introduce an engine he had invented. 
In 1829 he won a prize for the best locomotive engine, and invented a hot-air 
engine. He came to New York in 1839 and built the United States steamer 
Princeton. He was busily engaged in perfecting his hot-air engine and 
applying it to the propulsion of vessels, and upon the outbreak of the war he 
put himself at the service of the United States government. After the war 
he constantly displayed his inventive genius iu various constructions. He 
died March 8. 1889. 




John Ericsson. 



368 



DEVELOPMENT OF. THE UNION, 



back toward Eichmond. It was not McClellan's purpose to 
move upon Eichmond across the country. He withdrew his 
forces, and went by water to Fortress Monroe, intending to 
advance up the peninsula. His march was arrested by the 
fortifications at Yorktown, behind which Johnston lay with 
his army. 

McClellan laid siege to Yorktown; but Johnston only 
wished to gain time, and when McClellan was ready to at- 




The Merrimac sinking the Cumberland. 

tack the place, the Confederates retreated toward Eichmond. 

McClellan followed, and the day after the evacuation of York- 
town, attacked the rear of Johnston's army at Will- 
iamsburg. Johnston rested his army behind the 
defenses of the Chickahominy, and on the last day 

of May attacked McClellan at Fair Oaks. McClellan renewed 

the battle on the day following, and forced the Confederates 



May 5, 



MAP TO ILLUSTRATE THE OPERATIONS OF 

THE AKMY OF THE POTOMAC. ETC 

SCALE OF STATUTE MILES , "'*'!ll* 



Read 



h 



10 20 30 40 50 



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370 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 



N> -J*: NN^^ N 



to retire. Johnston was wounded, and was succeeded by 
General Robert E. Lee. 

200. Confederate Victories While Johnston was holding 

McClellan in check, a brilliant Confederate commander, Gen- 
eral T. J. Jackson,^ was 
making a series of rapid 
movements against di- 
visions of the Union 
army which were in the 
valley of the Shenan- 
doah. He was com- 
monly known as Stone- 
wall Jackson, because 
of the saying that his 
men would stand like a 
stone wall to meet the 
enemy's attack. In 
quick succession Jack- 
son met and repulsed 
Generals Fremont, 
Banks, and McDowell, 
and then joined Lee. 
The Confederate army 
now fell upon the Union 
army, and in a series of battles at the end of June forced it 
back to Harrison's Landing, on the James River. 

Lee and Jackson then turned their attention toward Wash- 
ington, which was defended by an army under General Pope. 

1 Thomas Jonathan Jackson was born in Harrison County, Virginia, January 
21, 1824. He was sprung from that Scotch-Irish stock to which our attention has 
often been drawn. He was educated at West Point, and served in the Mexican 
War. He tlien resigned his commission, and became professor of natural 
philosophy in tlie Virginia Military Institute at Lexington, and held the jjosi- 
tion till the breaking out of the war. As a young man, he was full of spirit 
and sport. In mature life, he made a profession of religion, and thenceforth 
was as unflinchingly devout and God-fearing as an old Scotch Covenanter. 
His life was one of profound religious conviction, and he won the passionate 
admiration of the men he commanded. See bis life by his wife. 




Stonewall Jackson. 



THE WAR FOR THE UNION. 



371 




I,' ,l['' '') .^ 







Robert Edward Lee.^ 

1 Robert Edward Lee was boru at Stratford, Westmoreland County, Virginia, 
January 19, 1807. His father was a brilliant general in the war for inde- 
pendence, and was familiarly known as Light-Horse Harry Lee. The future 
Confederate general was graduated at West Point in 1.S29, and received a com- 
mission in the engineer corps. He distinguished himself in the Mexican War, 
and was bre vetted colonel for his bravery in the siege of Chapultepec. In 1852 
he was appointed superintendent of the military academy at West Point. In 
March, 1861, he was made colonel of the first regiment of cavalry. He hesi- 
tated over the course he should take, but w^hen Virginia seceded, he made 
obedience to his State paramount, resigned his commission in the United States 
army, and was third of the first five generals appointed by the Confederacy. 
At tiie close of the war, he was elected president of Washington-Lee University, 
at Lexington, Virginia, and held the ofiice till his death, October 12, 1870. 



372 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION, 

Pope's forces stretched along the Rappahannock and Rapidan 
to the first line of the Blue Ridge. General Banks held a 
position at the western end of the line, and was attacked by 
Jackson at Cedar Mountain, August 9. Lee followed close 
behind, and the two generals forced Banks back, and then 
attacked Pope. McCleilan at Harrison's Landing was 
^^^non ' ordered to join Pope, and a portion of his forces came 
up in time to take part in the second battle of Manas- 
sas, fought near the old battlefield of Bull Run. Pope's army 
was put to rout. 

Antietam and Fredericksburg. — Lee now led his victori- 
ous army across the upper Potomac and entered Maryland. 
McCleilan, gathering the remnants of the two defeated armies, 
followed, and confronted the Confederates at Antietam Creek. 
Here a desperate struggle took place, September 17. It left 
each army exhausted, but the victory remained with the Union- , 
ists. The Confederates recrossed the Potomac, and retired up 
the Shenandoah Valley. McClellan's course had dissatisfied 
the administration, and his command was given 
l^fifiP ' ^^ General Ambrose E. Burnside, who attempted to 
move upon Richmond by way of Fredericksburg. 
Lee placed himself upon the hills behind the town, and 
when Burnside crossed the river, met his attack and com- 
pletely defeated him.^ 

1 For details of these movements see Antietam and Fredericksburg by 
Francis Winthrop Palfrey. 

QUESTIONS. 

Compare the characteristics and resources of the two sections of the 
country in view of the war. Who were the commanders on the two 
sides ? What brought on the battle of Bull Run ? What was the result 
of the battle ? What was the first direct blow struck at slavery ? How 
did President Lincoln act ? What attitude did the South take toward 
Europe ? Narrate the incidents of the Trent affair. How did the British 
government act with regard to Confederate cruisers ? What was the 
divided attitude of England toward America ? Describe the taking of 
Forts Henry and Donelson. Describe the series of actions by which the 



TBE WAR FOR THE UNION, 378 

Mississippi came under Union control. Narrate the affair of the Monitor 
and the Merrimac. What was McClellan's campaign ? Describe the suc- 
cesses won by Jackson and Lee. 

SEARCH QUESTIONS. 

What was Seward's prophecy as to the duration of the war ? For 
what was General Sherman accused of madness ? What was Seward's 
proposition to President Lincoln for the settlement of difficulties ? What 
ports of Great Britain were especially busy during the blockade? 

SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. 

Compositions : 

The Baltimore Riot. 

Boyhood days of General Grant. 

John Ericsson the inventor. 

The coming of the Monitor. 

How the ironclad monitor revolutionized the navies of the world. 

Horace Greeley. 

An account of the capture of New Orleans. 

Debates : 

Resolved, That Fremont should have been supported by the President 
when he issued his proclamation. 

Resolved, That the British government should have recognized the 
Southern Confederacy. 



CHAPTER XXIII. 



THE WAR FOR THE UNION. II. 



Chick-a-mau'ga. 

Torpe'do. A machine, containing 
gunpowder or other explosives, 
intended to destroy ships. 



Sic semper Tyrannis. A Latin 
sentence, meaning " So be it ever 
to tyrants." 

Chat-ta-noo'ga. 



201. The Financial Situation. — During the movements of the 
armies in 1862, the Congress of the United States was occupied 
in measures connected with the prosecution of the war. It 
also provided for the construction of a railway to the Pacific, 
and it passed the Homestead Bill, which assigned one hundred 
and sixty acres of the public lands to each family that should 
establish a home thereon. 

Its most far-reaching action was in the provision for a uni- 
form national currency. When the war began, the govern- 
ment borrowed large sums of money to defray expenses, and 
it continued to borrow as new demands arose. Since the Bank 
of the United States had failed to secure a renewal of its char- 
ter during Jackson's administration, the States had incorpo- 
rated banks, and the bills of each local bank had been received 
at par only in its own neighborhood. At this time the banks 
in the several States could not obtain specie in exchange for 
their bills, except by paying a high price for it ; the condition 
was similar to that which existed in the war for independence, 
for promises to pay are good only as they can be redeemed in 
the coin which is the standard of value throughout the civilized 
world ; and the war in America caused the nations dealing with 
it to accept gold only. At the end of 1861, the banks were 
obliged to suspend specie payments, — that is, they no longer 

374 



THE WAR FOR THE UNION. 375 

gave specie in return for the promises to pay which they had 
issued. 

In order to j)i'Ovide a currency for the people. Congress 
passed a bill, early in 1862, authorizing the issue of notes 
by the United States Treasury. From the green tint printed 
upon the back of the notes, they were popularly termed " green- 
backs " ; and to insure their success. Congress declared that 
they were " legal tender for all debts public and private, ex- 
cept duties on imports and interest on the public debt." Early 
in 1863, Congress passed an act establishing national banks. 
By the national banking system, all bills issued by the national 
banks becauie current in every part of the country. These 
acts were largely the work of Salmon P. Chase, Secretary of 
the Treasury. 

202. The Emancipation Proclamation. — The prospect looked 
gloomy for the country as the year 1862 drew to a close. 
President Lincoln, who Avatched anxiously every movement, 
was convinced that the time had come when the Union could 
no longer hope to conquer a peace and at the same time spare 
the system of slavery, which every one saw was at the founda- 
tion of the Confederacy. He therefore announced, in Septem- 
ber, that unless the seceding States returned to their allegiance 
within a hundred days, he should declare the slaves in those 
States to be free. It was a formal notice given out of respect 
to law ; no one expected that it would be regarded by the 
South, which only grew more firm. 

On the first day of January, 1863, in accordance with his 
notice, the President issued a Proclamation of Emancipation.^ 
One of the first results of this act was the formation of regi- 
ments of negro soldiers as a settled policy. An attack made 
by one of these regiments, under Colonel Kobert O. Shaw,^ 
upon Fort Wagner,^ in Charleston harbor, though unsuccess- 

1 Emerson's noble " Boston Hymn " was read at a meeting held in recogni- 
tion of the proclamation. 

2 See Lowell's poem, " Memoriae Positum." 

3 So great has been the change in the harbor through the shifting of sand 
that at this date (1897) there is not a vestige of Fort Wagner ; it is under water. 



376 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 



was 

May 2, 3, 

1863. 

feated. 



ful, was the occasion of so much bravery that the prejudice 
against negro soldiers disappeared, and great numbers were 
enlisted.^ 

203. The Battle of Gettysburg. — General Joseph Hooker 

had succeeded General 
Burnside, and attempt- 
ed to lead the army 
again to Richmond, but 
met by General 
Lee at Chancel- 
lorsville, and 
disastrously de- 
The Confeder- 
ates suffered heavily at 
this time in the death 
of their famous leader, 
Stonewall Jackson. Lee 
followed up his success 
by crossing the Potomac 
above Harper's Ferry, 
and marching into Penn- 
sylvania. The Union 
army, now under the 
command of General 
George G. Meade,^ hurried forward to meet him; for Lee was 

1 Not far from one hundred and eighty thousand negroes were in the service 
before the war closed. 

2 George Gordon Meade was born December 30, 1815, in Cadiz, Spain, where 
his father was, at the time. United States navy agent. His family was Penn- 
sylvanian. He was educated at West Point, and after a year's service in 
the war against the Seminoles, he resigned his commission, and became a civil 
engineer. Six years later, in 1842, he reentered the army as second lieutenant 
of topographical engineers, and served in the Mexican War. He was employed 
afterwards in a survey of the Great Lakes, and in August, 1861, became 
brigadier general of volunteers, in command of some Pennsylvania troops. 
After the war, he had command, successively, of important military districts, 
and at the time of his death, November 6, 1872, had his headquarters at 
Philadelphia. His greatest military services are treated in Chancellor sville 
and Gettysburg, by General Abner Doubleday. 




George Gordon Meade. 



THE WAli FOR THE UNION, 



377 



concentrating his forces and threatening Baltimore and Wash- 
ington. The two armies met at Gettysburg, and a battle fol- 
lowed which occupied the first three days of July, 1863. It was 
the most critical battle of the war. The Confederates were 
defeated, and retreated into Virginia. They never afterward 
came so near a final success, and the battle of Gettysburg is 
thus regarded as the turning point of the war. In this 
mighty conflict, the eighty thousand Union troops engaged 
lost more than one fourth of their number in killed, wounded, 
and missing; while the losses of the Confederate army of 
seventy-three thousand reached a total of twenty-five thou- 
sand. 

204. Operations in the West. — In the West, Grant had made 
several ineffectual attempts to capture Vicksburg by approach- 
ing it from the North. In 



'^^ 



April, 1863, moving his army 
from Milliken's Bend to a 
point opposite Bruinsburg, he 
crossed the river, and after 
fighting several severe bat- 
tles, received the surrender of 
Vicksburg on the fourth of 
July. Port Hudson, under 
siege at the same time, could 
no longer hold out; and the 
Mississippi, as President Lin- 
coln said, "ran un- 
vexed to the sea." i^oo' 
General Kosecrans, 
in command of the Army of 
the Cumberland, which had been in quarters at Murfreesboro, 
moved southward upon the Confederate forces under 
General Bragg. At Chickamauga a great battle was ]^863 ' 
fought in September, in which the Confederate army 
was victorious. It turned, and drove General Rosecrans to 
Chattanooga, and laid siege to the place. Rosecrans was re- 




VICINITY OP VICKSBURG. 

Scale of , — 10 Miles 



378 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 

• 
enforced hy General W. T. Sherman ^ with troops from Yicks- 
burg, and by General Hooker with a portion of the Army of 
the Potomac. General Grant was put in command of all the 
armies of the West. The Confederates were attacked, de- 
feated in the battles of Lookout Mountain and Missionary 
Kidge, and driven southward. 

205. Grant's Movement on Richmond.— The success of Grant 
at the West made him the chief figure in the war, and he was 
raised to the grade of lieutenant general, the highest in the 
army; the President, by the Constitution, being commander- 
in-chief. In the spring of 1864, Grant left Sherman at the 
head of the Western armies, and took up his headquarters 
with the Army of the Potomac, in order to direct the operar 
tions in Virginia. For six weeks, in a series of rapid move- 
ments, General Grant attempted to get between Lee's army 
and Richmond. He did not succeed in this. He fought the 
terrible battle of the Wilderness, in which both sides lost 
heavily, though the advantage at the end of the 

ififii ' b^^^^^ remained with the Unionists. Other battles 
followed, but Grant could not force Lee's lines, and 
now laid siege to Richmond and Petersburg. 

1 As has already been mentioned, General Sherman came of a family which 
had done good service in Ohio. He was born in Lancaster in that State, Feb- 
ruary 8, 1820. His middle name was due to his father's great admiration for 
the Indian chief of that name. In 1836 Sherman entered West Point, and 
graduated sixth in a class of forty-three. He served against the Seminoles in 
Florida, and afterward was stationed at Fort Moultrie. In 1846 he was sent 
to California, and on his return to the East, four years later, he became com- 
missary first at St. Louis and then at New Orleans. He resigned his commis- 
sion in 1853, the better to support his family, and went to San Francisco as 
partner in a banking house. He was very active in that city as a member of 
the Vigilance Committee. He was for a short time in a law firm in Leaven- 
worth, Kansas, and in 1859 was appointed superintendent of the Louisiana 
Military Academy. When Louisiana seceded he went to St. Louis and took 
the presidency of a street-railway company. Such was the varied experience 
before the war of one of the most brilliant of American generals. When 
Sumter was fired on, Sherman at once offered his services and was incessantly 
active throughout the war. Afterward he held command of one of the great 
military divisions, and he succeeded Grant in 1869 as general of the army. 
He died February 14, 1891. He wrote his own memoirs. 



THE WAR FOR THE UNION. 



379 





William Tecnmseh Sherman. 



The siege was begun early in June. In July, to loosen 
Grant's hold on Petersburg, General Lee sent General Early 
upon a dashing raid into Maryland and Pennsylvania, 
with the hope even that he might get possession of -j^gg^ ' 
Washington. The chief result was the burning of 
Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, and the capture of a quantity of 
supplies. When General Early retired up the Shenandoah 
Valley, he was followed by General Sheridan, who defeated him 



380 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 



at Winchester, and drove him beyond Cedar Creek. General 
Early then turned upon his adversary, and recovered his 
position. Sheridan was absent when this battle was fought, 
but, getting intelligence of it, rode rapidly up the valley, ral- 
lied his men, and turned defeat into victory.^ 

206. Naval Operations. — During the summer of 1864 the navy 
was attempting to blockade the Southern ports more effectu- 
ally, and to meet the 
cruisers which were 
inflicting great dam- 
age on American com- 
merce. Great relief 










MAP OF THE PENINSUI^V, ETC., 

BETWEEN NORFOLK AND RICHMOND. 
Scale of .2U Miles 




■^ rortb;iiVoatWp 

Suffolk"" ( " y 



RAPS 

^lurfullc 



was felt when the Kearsarge, 
Captain Winslow, attacked the 
Alabama, Captain Semmes, in 

the English Channel, 
Igg^J and sank her. Admiral Earragut, accompanied by 

land forces, captured the forts which commanded the 
entrance to Mobile Bay, and destroyed the Confederate iron- 
clad Tennessee. The Confederate ram Albemarle, also, which 
lay in Eoanoke Eiver, was blown up by a torpedo which was 
affixed to it by a courageous sailor. Lieutenant Gushing. 



1 Read T. Buchanan Read's spirited poem, " Sheridan's Ride.' 



THE WAR FOR THE UNION. 381 

207. The Western campaign in 1864 began at the same time 
as Grant's movements in Virginia. General Sherman began 
to move from Chattanooga toward Atlanta. Before 

him lay a Confederate army under command of Gen- loL ' 
eral Joseph E. Johnston; but Sherman, avoiding a 
direct engagement, gradually pressed his opponent back to the 
fortifications of Atlanta. The Confederate government re- 
moved General Johnston, and gave the command to General 
Hood, who at once made an attack upon Sherman. But Sher- 
man changed his position, and took Atlanta, which Hood had 
left. 

The two armies, had, as it were, exchanged places; and 
Hood,- instead of assaulting the city, undertook to cut off Sher- 
man from the railroads which brought supplies to his army. 
Sherman now detached a portion of his army, placed it under 
General George H. Thomas, and sent it against Hood, while 
he himself prepared to march southward through Georgia 
to the coast. 

The Battle of Nashville. — Hood meanwhile aimed at the 
capture of Nashville. On the way he attacked General Schofield 
at Franklin, and suffered a loss, but he kept on, and 
laid siege to Nashville. While Hood was thus en- lociA ' 
gaged. General Thomas attacked him, and fought a 
battle which lasted for two days, and resulted in a severe 
defeat of the Confederates. Hood's army was unable to rally, 
and was scattered over the country. For the first time in the 
war a campaign had ended in the destruction of an army. 

208. Sherman's March to the Sea. — Five days later, Sher- 
man's army entered Savannah. He had started from Atlanta 
in the middle of November, cut loose from his base of 
supplies, and marched, without meeting any armed -.gg. ' 
opposition, to the seaboard. For a month, rumors only 

of his whereabouts reached the ears of the people at the North. 
The people at the South knew well where he was ; for in his 
march to the sea his army and followers had left a broad path 
of desolation. At Savannah he was in communication with 



382 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION, 

the Union fleet, and sent word that the Confederacy was nothing 
but a shell, and that he was ready with his victorious army to 
march northward.^ 

209. Sherman's March Northward. — Upon the first day of 
February, 1865, Sherman began his northward march. The 
military support of the Confederacy now rested on the army 
which Lee commanded within the intrenchments of Richmond 
and Petersburg, and on the remnant of the Western forces, 
with which General Johnston was trying to check Sherman's 
advance. On the 17th of February Sherman captured Columbia, 
South Carolina. 

It was now impossible for the Confederates to hold Charles- 
ton, and they evacuated it therefore the same day. Fort Sum- 
ter had been pounded to ruins, the April before, by continual 
bombardment from batteries erected by the Union forces; but 
Charleston had not then been taken. As he moved northward, 
Sherman encountered Johnston's forces in North Carolina. 
The Union army, however, was superior in numbers ; and when 
Sherman entered Goldsboro on the 23d of March, Johnston 
retired to Raleigh. 

210. The Capture of Richmond. — Sherman pushed on after 
him ; but events in Virginia were fast rendering a contest in 
North Carolina unnecessary. Sheridan had led a column of 
cavalry up the Shenandoah Valley, and thence down the James 
River. He did all the mischief he could on the way, and 
joined the main army in front of Petersburg. Grant had 

already ordered a forward movement against Lee, 

1865 ' ^^^^^ made one desperate attempt to break the center 

of the Union lines at Fort Stead man, intending under 

cover of the attack to withdraw his forces. The effort failed. 

Three days later, Sheridan attacked Lee at Five 

1865 ' -^^^'^^j ^^^ ^^s victorious. Grant at once carried his 

army within the lines of the Petersburg defenses. Lee 

retreated with the purpose of bringing his forces and Johnston's 

1 For a detailed account of this campaign see General J. D. Cox's The 
March to the Sea : Franklin and Nashville, in Campaigns of the Civil War. 



THE WAB FOR THE UNION. 

together for a final stand, while the advance guard of the Union 
army entered Richmond, April 2. Jefferson Davis and other 
officers of the Confederate government had hastily fled ; and 
Lee was using every effort t® effect a junction with Johnston. 
But the Union army, elated and well supplied, bore down upon 
the hopeless retreating column. On the 9th of April General 
Lee surrendered to General Grant at Appomattox Court House. 

211. The End of the War. — The news was received with an 
outburst of joy at the North. President Lincoln had been 
reelected in 1864, and on the 4th of March, 1865, had begun 
his second term. At that time the end of the struggle was 
plainly near, and the President, in his Inaugural Address, had 
already given expression to the hope of the country that there 
would be a reconciliation between the two sections. " With 
malice toward none ; " he said, " with charity for all ; with firm- 
ness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive 
on to finish the work we are in ; to bind up the nation's wounds ; 
to care for him who shall have borne the battle, and for his 
widow and his orphan — to do all which may achieve and 
cherish a just and lasting peace among ourselves, and with 
all nations." 

Immediately after the fall of Richmond, President Lincoln 
visited the Confederate capital, and walked with his little son 
along the desolate streets. He had been weighed down with 
anxiety and grief at the war, and looked with eagerness for the 
close. He appointed a day of thanksgiving for the end of the 
war. It was to be the day on which, just four years before, 
Fort Sumter had been attacked ; and a party went to Charles- 
ton, where General Anderson again raised the flag over the 
ruined fort. 

212. The Assassination of Lincoln. — In the midst of the 
rejoicing, a terrible event occurred. The President had gone 
to the theater in Washington on the evening of April 14, and 
was seated in a box overlooking the stage, when an assassin^ 

1 The assassin was an actor, Wilkes Booth, who was one of the Virginia 
soldiers who were on duty at the execution of John Brown. Booth was shot 



384 DEVELOPMENT 0^ THE UNION. 

shot him through the head, leaj^ed over the railing upon the 
stage, and, shouting "Sic semper Tyrannis," rushed out of 
the building. At the same time another assassin attempted to 
murder Secretary Seward, who was ill at home, and wounded 
him seriously, but not fatally. There had been a plot, at this 
time of the downfall of the Confederacy, to pull down the 
leaders of the nation ; but it was the plot of only a few men, 
who perished miserably. 

The President lingered a few hours, but gave no sign of con- 
sciousness before his death. The assassin had shouted the 
motto on the Virginia coat-of-arms, but no word could have 
been worse suited to Abraham Lincoln than the word " tyrant." 
In the four years of his service he had shown himself to be the 
elder brother of the people, as Washington had been the father. 
The people had learned to love and trust him. He listened to 
every one, and was slow in making up his mind ; but that was 
because he wished to be clearly in the right. No one who was 
in trouble came to him without receiving help if he could give it. 
He thought always of his country, and never of his own 
fame.^ 

The joy of the nation was turned into deepest mourning. In 
every town almost every house hung out some sign of woe. The 
grief was scarcely lessened by the surrender, on the 26th of 
April, of General Johnston to General Sherman. On the 10th 
of May, Jefferson Davis was captured.^ With its armies sur- 
rendered, and the head of its government in prison, the Con- 
federacy came to an end. 

213. The Soldiers and Sailors of the Union. — On the 22d and 
23d of May, a grand review of the Armies of the Potomac, 

n fortnight later near Bowling Green, Virginia, by Sergeant Boston Corbett, 
who, with a company of men, was hunting for him; and on the 7th of July 
three men and a woman were executed for complicity in the assassination. 
1 See Walt Whitman's moving dirge, " My Captain! O My Captain! " 
^ Jefferson Davis was captured near Irwinsville, Georgia ; he was imprisoned 
in Fortress Monroe from 18()5 to 18G7 ; he received an amnesty from the gov- 
ernment in 18(58. He wrote his memoirs in the last years of his life, and died 
December 6, 1889. 



THE WAR FOR THE UNION. 385 

Tennessee, and Georgia was held in Washington, and then in 
companies and singly the veterans of the war returned to their 
homes. On the 15th of April, the Military Order of the Loyal 
Legion had been organized by officers and ex-officers of the 
army, navy, and marine corps.^ Membership descends to the 
eldest direct male lineal descendant. In the winter of 18G5- 
1866 the Grand Army of the Republic, composed of soldiers 
who served in the war, was organized at Springfield, Illinois, 
and " posts " are established throughout the Northern States. 
At these posts, memories of the war are preserved, and care 
extended to those who are disabled and to their families. A 
national encampment is held annually.^ 

The care taken, by the nation, of these soldiers and their 
families has been unstinted. Homes for those without other 
homes have been established in different parts of the country ; 
preference has been given to soldiers in the public service, and 
a comprehensive pension list is an annual charge upon the 
income of the nation.^ 

The respect paid to the memory of the dead is witnessed to 
by the yearly observance on the 30th of May of the custom of 
decorating the graves of soldiers ; * by the numberless monu- 
ments, including many noble buildings devoted to public uses, 
such as libraries, hospitals, and halls ; and by the multitude of 
books and poems which record, for the inspiration of the young, 
the deeds of the brave soldiers and sailors.^ 



1 There are now (1897) twenty commanderies, each representing a State, and 
one the District of Columhia, and a total memhership of 8888. 

2 The number of posts, June 30, 1896, was 7302, with 340,610 members. 

3 The number of pensioners upon the rolls, June 30, 1896, was 970,678. This 
number covers all previous wars, including even seven widows of Revolu- 
tionary soldiers. The payment of pensions at the same date amounted to 
$137,466,805.03. Apparently the pension outlay touched the highest point in 
1893, when it was $158,155,342.51. 

4 This custom originated with Southern women, and was taken up about 
1868 by the Grand Army. 

s One of the most dignified of these memorials is the Memorial Hall of Har- 
vard University, with its tablets and flags. Read Lowell's famous Ode recited 
at the Harvard Commemoration ^ July 21, 1865. 
2c 



386 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 



QUESTIONS. 

What action did Congress take looking to the peaceful occupation of 
the country? What was the financial situation? What are "green- 
backs " ? When did President Lincoln issue the Emancipation rroclania- 
tion ? What was the immediate effect ? Narrate the Incident which led 
up to the battle of Gettysburg. What was the significance of the battle ? 
Describe the movements in the West in the summer of 1803. When was 
Grant made lieutenant general ? Describe the operations in Virginia in 
tlie spring of 18G4. What was Sheridan's ride ? Where and by whom 
was the Alabama destroyed ? Name the other naval successes. Describe 
the events which led up to Sherman's march to the sea. What was that 
march ? Narrate Sherman's movements after leaving Savannah. Give 
the events connected with the fall of Richmond. What words did Presi- 
dent Lincoln use in his second inaugural? Give the facts of the assassi- 
nation of the President. What is the Loyal Legion ? the Grand Army ? 

SEARCH QUESTIONS. 

What was Pickett's charge ? What and where was Libby Prison ? 
Anderson ville ? How does the Loyal Legion compare with the order of 
the Cincinnati? Why does it fail to excite the alarm caused by the 
Revolutionary order ? Name the soldiers' monuments you have seen. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. 

Compositions : 

The story of Barbara Frietchie. 

Memorial Day. 

Sherman's march through Georgia. 

The general of the war whom I most admire. 

A comparison of Washington and Lincoln. 

The Emancipation Proclamation and its results. 

Life of a soldier in the war ; his pay, rations, etc. 

Debates : 

Hesolved, That Jefferson Davis should have been tried for treason. 

Hesolved, That the victories of peace surpass the glories of the battle- 
field. 



MOUNTAIN TIME 10 A.M. 




CENTRAL TIME H A.M 



. EASTERN TIME 1g NOQin 




CHAPTER XXIV. 

RECONSTRUCTION. 

214. The Cost of the War. — General Grant, when arranging 
with General Lee the terms upon which the Confederate army 
should surrender, proposed that the soldiers who had horses 
should retain them. He said the men would "need them 
for the spring plowing and farm Avork." • The first wish of 
those who had been most prominent in putting down the 
Confederacy was that the Union should be restored as quickly 
as possible to its former state, with the exception of slavery. 
They desired that the armies should be disbanded, and that the 
men who had been withdrawn from their homes and industry 
should return to their old life. 

For four years a large part of the strength of the nation had 
gone into fighting, and the war had caused a terrible loss of 
life and property. Probably a million Americans perished in 
battle, or from wounds and disease induced by the war. It 
has been estimated that the war for the Union, exclusive of 
pensions, cost the nation not less than ten thousand million 
dollars, and every year still sees vast sums expended on pen- 
sions. We rightly measure the value of a possession by what 
it has cost us, and the nation preserved at such a cost of men 
and money becomes of precious worth. 

215. The Return of the States into the Union. — With the close 
of the war the government which had been organized as the 
Confederate States of America came to an end, but the separate 
States which had formed the Confederacy, each had its govern- 
ment. Since the people of these States, however, had origi- 
nally claimed the right of a State to secede from the Union, and 

387 



DEVELOPMENT OF^THE UNION, 

had fought for that right, they could not now, when the fight 
had gone against them, come back into the Union by their own 
will. That would have established the right which they failed 
to establish by war. The right of a State to secede had been 
submitted to the arbitrament of war, and the decision had 
been given in the negative. 

On the other hand, President Lincoln and those who held 
with him were very eager to restore the Union in the seceding 
States as fast as possible. Accordingly, proclamation was made 
in December, 1863, that in any such State, as soon as one tenth 
of the voters of 1860 should have taken an oath to " support, 
protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States, and 
the Union of the States thereunder," and furthermore, should 
support the acts of Congress made during the war with refer- 
ence to slavery, the President would recognize the State gov- 
ernment they set up. Arkansas had already acted on this plan, 
and in 1864, Mr. Lincoln recognized similar governments in 
Louisiana and Tennessee. But his proclamation governed the 
Executive only ; Congress would not yet receive representatives 
from these States. 

216. Legislation in the Interest of the Freedmen. — Upon the 
death of Lincoln, Andrew Johnson ^ of Tennessee, who had 
been elected Vice President, became President. He had been 
selected by the Republican party as representing the Union 
men of the South. He was not, however, in full sympathy 
with the Republicans ; and it soon became evident that there 
was a breach between the President and Congress, which con- 
stantly widened. The war had been fought to preserve the 

1 Andrew Johnson was born in Raleigh, North Carolina, December 29, 1808. 
So poor was he in his youth and so humble his surroundings that not till he 
was serving an apprenticeship to a tailor did he learn to read, and his wife, 
after he was married, taught him to write and cipher. But he had a strong 
mind and was active in jwlitical affairs. He settled in Greenville, Tennessee, 
and organized a workingman's party. He held local office, was elected to 
the State Legislature, and in 1843 was sent to Congress. He served in the 
House of Representatives for ten years. In 1855 he was elected governor of 
Tennessee, and in 1857 he became United States senator. He was again 
elected senator in January, 1875, but died July 31 of the same year. 



RECONSrU UCTION. 



389 



Union, but it had also, necessarily, been a war to extinguisb 
the system of slavery. There was, therefore, a strong senti- 
ment at the North against any restoration of the Union which 
should leave the blacks in the power of their former masters. 
A State in the Union could pass many laws which would 
practically x)revent the freedmen from having any voice in the 
government or from securing full protection under the law. 

Before the war was 
over and before any 
State had been received 
back. Congress had 
passed the Thirteenth 
Amendment to the Con- 
stitution, forever forbid- 
ding slavery in 



the land, 
year later 



it 



February, 

1865. 




passed a bill creating 
what was known as the 
Freedmen's Bureau, a 
department of the gov- 
ernment intended to 
provide for the needs 
of the blacks, who, it 
was said, were the wards 
of the nation. The Pres- 
ident returned the bill 

to Congress without his signature, on the ground that it was an 
interference with the ridits of the States in which 



Andrew Johusou. 



February, 

1866. 



the freedmen lived. When the President refuses to 
sign a bill, he is said to veto ^ it, and the bill thus 
vetoed does not become a law unless, on its return to Con- 
gress, two thirds of the members of each House vote to pass 
it in spite of the President's veto. The Freedmen's Bureau 
Bill was thus passed over the President's veto. 
1 From the Latin word veto, I forbid. 



390 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 

Civil Rights Bill. — Congress then passed a Civil Rights 

Bill, by which freedmen were made citizens of the United 

States. United States officers were instructed to pro- 

IRfifi' *^^* them in the exercise of their rights in the courts. 
The President vetoed this bill also, but Congress 
passed it over the veto. To make the bill stronger, Congress 
adopted the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution, and 
submitted it to the States, which ratified it. Later still the 
Fifteenth Amendment was adopted, by which the right to 
vote was given to the freedmen. By these amendments the 
people gave to the former slaves all the legal rights which 
white citizens held. 

The President disapproved of these measures, and there was 
now open hostility between him and Congress. Congress, 
growing more positive, passed over the President's veto what is 
known as the Tenure of Office Bill. By this bill the President 
could not remove any public officer without the consent of the 
Senate. On the same day a bill was passed, also over 

l^fiR? ' ^^^® President's veto, by which Congress provided for 
a system of government over the States which had 
formed the Confederacy. It was, in effect, a military^-govern- 
ment. Each State was to remain under it until it ratified the 
Fourteenth Amendment and formed a constitution which se- 
cured the rights of the freedmen. 

217. The practical working of this plan was not satisfactory. 
It was not in accordance with the spirit of American local self- 
government. The most influential men at the South took no 
part in this reconstruction. They had been officers in the 
Confederacy, and could not or would not take the oath of 
allegiance to the United States. Many refused to act, because 
they did not believe they were free to obey their convictions. 
They were, they said, under military government. When the 
Confederacy broke up, many men who had been prominent in 
it left the country to seek their fortune in Europe or South 
America. Families were scattered, great estates were no 
longer cultivated, and many who had lived in luxury were 



RECONSTRUCTION, 391 

impoverished. With no slaves, they no longer had the same 
means of subsistence. 

As a rule, the freedmen knew little about the meaning of a 
vote. They had come out of slavery, which never trained them 
to be citizens. Many were anxious to learn to read and write ; 
many were eager to earn their living; but great multitudes 
were ignorant, bewildered, and easily influenced. 

New People in the South. — At the same time many persons 
from the North made their way into the ruined States. Some 
were soldiers who had been attracted during the war by the 
rich soil of the country, and wished to make their homes there. 
But the conditions were not favorable. The wounds made by 
the war were too fresh, and the people of the two parts of the 
country were not yet ready to be good neighbors. The best 
work in peacemaking was done by those who assisted in reviv- 
ing the agricultural industries of the South, and in developing 
the great natural resources ; and by the noble men and women 
who devoted themselves to the education of the blacks.^ 

The most mischievous men who entered the South at this 
time were adventurers, who thought it an excellent opportunity 
to mak" their fortunes and acquire political power. They 
easily obtained an influence over the freedmen. They were 
active, and the native Southern whites kept aloof from politics. 
The government of the States was thus often brought into dis- 
repute. Men exercised official power who had no regard for 
the welfare of the State, but simply looked out for their own 
advantage. The conduct of the State governments brought 
such evils that the Southern whites began to combine to 
recover political power. A period almost of anarchy followed, 
in which each side used every means to obtain and keep the 

1 No history of this period should overlook the work done by such men as 
General Samuel Chapman Armstrong, who had served honorably in the war, 
and on its close devoted himself with untiring zeal to the training of the negro, 
and afterward the Indian, in the industrial and normal school at Hampton, 
Virginia. The example there set bore fruit in the remarkable work of the 
same kind carried on at Tuskegee, Alabama, by Booker T. Washington, him- 
self of negro blood. 



392 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 

supremacy. Gradually, however, the political authority re- 
turned to the class which had held it before the war. 

218. The Impeachment of the President. — The quarrel be- 
tween Congress and the President ended at last in the im- 
peachment of the President by the House of Representatives. 
He was tried before the Senate, as the Constitution provides. 
The charges brought against him were mainly on account of 
offenses which he was said to have committed against the 
Tenure of Office Act. The chief charge was that he had 
removed the Secretary of War, E. M. Stanton, without the 
consent of the Senate. The trial occurred near the close of 
Mr. Johnson's term of office. 

The party which had elected him was now thoroughly op- 
posed to him, and the impeachment showed its anger. The 
trial lasted two months, and then was abandoned after a vote 
had been taken which showed that it was impossible to secure 
conviction. The most important effects of this four years' 
quarrel were two : first, while the South was left in confusion, 
people became accustomed to seeing affairs which formerly 
were managed by the States, now controlled by Congress ; 
secondly, the authority of Congress was increased, while that 
of the President was diminished. 

219. Grant's Administration. — General Grant was now the 
most conspicuous man in the country. He was the general 
who had achieved the final victory in the war, and he had 
shown firmness and prudence when President Johnson had 

made him Secretary of War, after removing Mr. 

Stanton. He was nominated for the Presidency by 
the Eepublican party, and elected by a large majority. 
President Grant held the office eight years. At his first 
election seven of the Southern States had complied with the 
acts of Congress, and had been readmitted into the Union. 
By January 30, 1871, the last of the eleven States which had 
seceded was again represented in Congress. 

220. Industrial Reconstruction. — While the country was en- 
gaged thus in readjusting its political relations the real recon- 



BECONSTR UCTION, 393 

struction was going on silently through the industrial activity 
of all parts of the Union. Besides West Virginia, another 
State was added to the Union during the war, — Nevada in 
1864. The first added after the war was Nebraska in 1867. 
A great increase of territory was effected in the same year by 
the purchase of Alaska from Russia, for a little more than 
seven million dollars. 

In 1869 the first of the great railways was finished which 
connected the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, and opened the far 
Western country to travel and settlement. One effect of the 
railway was to bring many persons into Utah who were not 
identified with the Mormon church. They became permanent 
citizens of the territory, were engaged in opening up the rich 
silver mines which abound in the mountains of that region, and 
contributed largely to the development of the natural resources 
of the territory. 

The Atlantic Cable and Increased Immigration. — In 1866, a 
previous attempt in 1858 having failed, a telegraxDhic cable 
was laid upon the bed of the Atlantic between America and 
Europe. This cable was followed by others ; but a closer con- 
nection between the United States and the Old World than 
any effected by the telegraph is formed by the constant 
passage back and forth of people. With the close of 
the war, immigration, which had suffered a check, increased 
rapidly. From 1871 to 1880 nearly three millions, and from 
1881 to 1890, more than five millions, of people migrated to the 
United States. During the decade ending in 1900, nearly four 
millions of immigrants have swelled the population of the 
country. From 1789 to 1900, a period of one hundred and five 
years, the United States has absorbed an alien population of 
over eighteen millions.^ 

221, International Relations. — In 1862 the Emperor of France, 
Napoleon III., attempted to establish in Mexico a foreign gov- 
ernment under Maximilian, an Austrian archduke. He sent 

1 The chief nationalities from which this mighty host has come are indi- 
cated in a table which will he found in the Appendix. 



394 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 




Laying the First Atlantic Cable. 



1867. 



a French army for the purpose of supporting him. The United 
States protested against this interference of a European power 
in American affairs, and immediately after the war, began to 
mass troops on the Mexican border. Thereupon Napoleon 
abandoned his attempt, but Maximilian remained, was 
seized by the Mexicans, and executed. The incident 
was held to be significant of the force of the Monroe Doctrine. 
The Treaty of Washington. — But a more notable exhibition 
of international relations was in the treaty of Washington, 
concluded with Great Britain, May 5, 1871. This important 
document marked a great advance in the position of the 
United States among the nations of the world, and bound 
more securely together the two great English-speaking peoples. 
The fact of its being signed in the United States was in itself 
a witness to the dignity of the nation, but most noticeable was 



RECONSTR UCTION. 395 

the substitution of friendly arbitration of great disputes for a 
settlement by war. 

The United States thought it had just cause against Great 
Britain for the injury done its shipping during the war by Con- 
federate cruisers fitted out in the ports of Great Britain. The 
most mischievous of these cruisers was the Alabama, and by the 
treaty the " Alabama claims," as they were called, were sub- 
mitted to a board of commissioners from five friendly nations, 
which met at Geneva, Switzerland, in 1872, and agreed that 
Great Britain should pay the United States the sum of fifteen 
and a half million dollars. Great Britain honorably and 
promptly paid the sum. The treaty of Washington also made 
provision for the final settlement of all disputes concerning 
boundaries between the United States and Great Britain.* 

222. Discovery of Petroleum. — During the period of recon- 
struction, the country was developing rapidly in all forms of 
industry, but one new and very important source of wealth 
was added. Before 1859, there had been factories for distill- 
ing oil from coal, but in August of that year an artesian well 
was sunk near Titusville, Pennsylvania, and when it reached 
the depth of seventy feet, natural oil began to rise to the sur- 
face and to flow with great rapidity. Artificial distillation of 
oil now ceased, when the great reservoir of oil beneath the 
surface could thus be tapped. After the war, there was a very 
great increase of borings, not only in Pennsylvania, but in States 
farther west, until petroleum became a great commercial com- 
modity, especially in its refined form, known as kerosene. 

223. The Chicago Fire. — The same period witnessed a terrible 

disaster in a s^reat fire at Chicasro, when nearly three 

1 .i_- 1 -1 r.-u -X. 1 ^ Octobers, 

and a third square miles ot the city were burned over, -j^gy^ 

nearly one hundred thousand persons made homeless, 

and nearly three hundred millions of property was lost. But 

1 The effect of the arbitration at Geneva upon international relations has 
been very marked. A writer in The International Journal of Ethics for 
October, 1896, points out sixteen cases of such arbitration between 1881 and 



896 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 

the sympathy of the rest of the country and the energy and 
hope of the people of Chicago quickly repaired the waste 
and started the city upon a wonderful period of growth. 

224. Important Acts of Congress. — There were also during 
this period certain political acts which have significance in 
their bearing on current public affairs. In 1867, the order of 
Grangers or Patrons of Husbandry was founded in Washing- 
ton, with the chief purpose of agitating to secure better trans- 
portation and lower freight rates. The number of members 
increased so rapidly that in 1875 they numbered a million 
and a half, chiefly in the Western and Southern States. The 
agitation thus begun was one of the causes which led to the 
passage of the Interstate Commerce Act in 1887. 

Another act of Congress, dating from the time of the war, 
gave grants of public land to the several States and 
1862* territories which should provide colleges for in- 
struction in branches of learning bearing on agricul- 
ture and the mechanic arts. Twenty-five years later by an 
additional act provision was made by Congress for 
1887 ' y^^^^y appropriation to the several States for scientific 

investigation. 
Civil Service Reform. — The most far-reaching political change 
introduced in this period was the reform of the civil service. In 
1865, and for six successive years, Mr. Jenckes, a representative 
from Rhode Island, introduced a bill in the House to regulate 
the civil service of the United States. In 1871, a civil service 
commission was appointed to draw up rules for such regula- 
tion ; the popular demand for this reform was recognized by 
Congress in 1883 by the passage of the Pendleton Civil Ser- 
vice Bill. The nation, the several States, and many of the 
cities and towns have come slowly to recognize the principle 
that the civil service, like the army and navy, should be 
administered without regard to the party preference of those 
employed. 



BECONSTR UCTION. 397 



QUESTIONS. 

What course did General Grant pursue to make peace at once effective ? 
What was the cost of the war in men and money ? What question was 
settled by the war ? What steps did Lincoln take to recover the States ? 
How were the f reedmen regarded ? What was the Thirteenth Amendment ? 
the Fourteenth ? the Fifteenth ? Narrate the steps by which Congress car- 
ried its plan of reconstruction as against the President. What stood in 
the way of genuine reconstruction? What discordant element entered 
Southern life ? Narrate the incidents of the impeachment of the President. 
What was the progress of reunion under Grant's administration ? Note 
some of the signs of the strengthening of the Union in new States ; in the 
building of railways ; in immigration. What attempt was made by the 
French to occupy INIexico ? What was the treaty of Washington ? How 
were the Alabama claims adjusted? What new source of wealth was 
discovered ? What disaster befell Chicago ? Explain the name Grangers. 
What acts of Congress were designed to aid education? Narrate the 
beginnings of Civil Service Reform. 



SEARCH QUESTION. 
What were the indirect damages claimed in the Alabama case ? 

SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. 

Compositions : 

The purchase of Alaska. 

How Cyrus Field laid the cable. 

Debates : 

Besolved, That the impeachment of Andrew Johnson was uncalled for. 

Besolved, That the Civil Service should be divorced from politics. 

Besolved, That interference by the United States in 1867 in Mexican 
affairs was unjustifiable. 

Hesolved, That arbitration should be employed to settle all disputes 
between nations. 



CHAPTER XXV. 

AETER THE CENTENNIAL YEAR. 
Sioux (soo). Bartholdi (bar-tol'di). Oklahoma (ok-la-ho'-ma). 

225. The Centennial of the Union. — History is an account of 
what has happened in former days, so written as to show not 
only what truly happened, but if possible how and why it 
happened, and what followed in consequence. But in the 
history of a great nation it is not easy to understand the 
full meaning of Avhat has happened recently. A good place 
at which to stop our history is the close of the first century 
of the republic. After that, history becomes annals ; that is, 
we relate year by year the important events, which some day 
will take their place and be fully explained in history. 

In 1876, a hundred years had passed since the stirring 
days when the English colonies in America had maintained 
their rights under English law, and had finally declared and 
achieved their independence. Each of the steps toward inde- 
pendence was celebrated when ios hundredth anniversary came 
round. The spilling of the tea in Boston harbor, the fights 
at Lexington and Concord, the battle of Bunker Hill, the 
assumption by Washington of the command of the American 
army, and other important events were recalled and celebrated. 
The centennial year of independence was made memorable by 
a great international exhibition at Philadelphia. A new State, 
also, Colorado,^ was added to the Union in 1876. 

The year will be remembered also as the one in which the 
first public exhibition was made of the telephone, by the in- 

1 A Spanish name given to the Colorado River because of its deep color. 

398 



AFTER TUE CENTENNIAL YEAH. 



399 




Thomas Alva Edison.' 

1 Thomas Alva Edison was born at Milan, Ohio, February 11, 18i7, but the 
family soon after moved to Port Huron, Michigan, He had to earn his living 
from early boyhood, and was a train boy on a railroad. A station master, 
whose child's life Edison had saved, taught the boy telegraphy, and in this art 
Edison quickly became an expert. In 1868 he chanced to be in New York 
when the indicator of a gold and stock company was broken, and he not only 
repaired it, but in doing so struck out a new invention, the printing telegraph. 
He sold his invention in 1876 and established himself at Menlo Park, New 
Jersey, where he built workshops for carrying out experiments in the appli- 
cation of electricity. It would take a very long paragraph even to name the 
devices and inventions which have followed, the most far-reaching being, 
perhaps, his system of electric lighting, his microphone, and the phonograph. 



400 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION, 

ventor whose name is most closely identified with it, Alex- 
ander Graham Bell. During the last quarter of the 

"l^gyg ' nineteenth century marvelous progress was made in 
the application of electricity to lighting, transporta- 
tion, and the various uses of life. Many of the most important 
of these appliances were the result of American electricians, 
as Bell, Brush, Dolbear, Edison, Farmer, and Gray. 

226. The Sioux War. — While the Union, at peace with 
foreign nations, was celebrating its independence of Europe, 
a war broke out on the Western frontier. The Indians had 
risen, and the nation was reminded of that dispute with the 
natives of the soil which had begun with the first settlement 
of the country and had never been long at rest. The Sioux 
Indians had ceded to the United States a large tract of country 
in what was formerly Dakota Territory. They had reserved 
to themselves the district known as the Black Hills ; but when 
it was rumored that gold had been found on their reservation, 
white men began to push in, regardless of the promise which 
the government had made to the Indians. 

Much of the discontent of the Indians had been caused by the 
swindling they had suffered at the hands of agents. What was 
known as the Indian ring, a corrupt body of men, had acquired 
control of the distribution of the goods which the government, 
by its agreement, bestowed on the Indians in the several reser- 
vations. The Sioux are a warlike tribe, and they retaliated by 
attacking the frontier settlements in Montana and Wyoming. 
United States troops were sent out against them, but met 
at first with terrible disaster. General Custer,^ with about 



1 George Armstrong Custer, a brilliant cavalry officer, was born at New 
Rumley, Ohio, December 5, 1839. He graduated at West Point, in 1861, and 
at once engaged in active service, being in the Bull Run battle. Throughout 
the war, it is said, he never lost a gun or a flag, and captured more guns, 
flags, and prisoners than any other officer not commanding an army. After 
the war he served on the frontier, and it was largely his reports of the fertility 
and mineral wealth of the Black Hills that stimulated the movement of popu- 
lation in that direction. See Longfellow's poem, "The Revenge of Rain-in 
the-Face." 



AFTER THE CENTENNIAL YEAR. 



401 



two hundred and fifty soldiers, was surprised, and the entire 
force massacred. The war lasted into the winter of June 25, 
1877, when the Sioux, with their chiefs, Sitting Bull 1876. 
and Crazy Horse, went across the border into British terri- 



227. The Electoral 
Commission. — The 

changes in the 
South, and the dis- 
satisfaction of many 
in the North with 
the rule of the Re- 
publican managers, 
were seen in the 
election of 1876. 
Rutherford B. 
Hayes, of Ohio, was 
the candidate of the 
Republican party, 
and Samuel J. Til- 
den, of New York, 
of the Democratic 
party. So close was 
the vote that the 




George Armstrong Custer. 

decision of the election turned upon the way in which the 
votes of Louisiana, Florida, and Oregon should be counted. 
Both parties declared that they had carried these States ; but 
there had been so much political management to secure the 
votes that each party accused the other of dishonesty. 

It was finally agreed by Congress to refer the dispute to an 
Electoral Commission, composed of five senators, five repre- 
sentatives, and five justices of the Supreme Court. The result 
was the election of Mr. Hayes, and the end of the dispute 
was received with a sense of relief by the country. People 
were most concerned, not that Mr. Hayes or Mr. Tilden should 
be President, but that there should be a fair election. 
2d 



40^ 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 



One of the first acts of President Hayes's administration was 
to put an end to all supervision of elections at the South by 
United States troops. With the withdrawal of these troops 
disappeared the last sign of any distinction in the government 

between the States 
which had seceded in 
18(31 and those which 
had remained loyal. 

228. Resumption of 
Specie Payments. — On 
January 1, 1879, the 
United States govern- 
ment and the national 
banks resumed specie 
payment. The country 
again carried on busi- 
ness upon the same 
t oting as other na- 
tions. It was rapidly 
diminishing the debt 
incurred in the war for 
the Union. At the 
close of the war the 
national debt was more 
than twenty-eight hundred million dollars.^ When specie pay- 




Rutherford Bircliard Hayes. 



1 The nineteenth President of the United States was born in Delaware, 
Ohio, October 4, 1822. He was graduated at Kenyon College, studied law at 
Harvard University, and began the practice of law at Marietta, Ohio, in 1845. 
He removed to Cincinnati in 1850, and was prominent in his profession there, 
at the breaking out of the war. He became a volunteer, and rose to the 
rank of brigadier general. He was wounded four times, and showed great 
bravery. He was a member of Congress after the war, and three several 
times was governor of Ohio. After retiring from the Presidency, he returned 
to private life, but continued to serve his country in important benevolent 
movements, especially interesting himself in the civilization of the Indian. 
He died at his home, Fremont, Ohio, January 17, 1893. 

2 The public debt reached its maximum August 31, 1865, on which day it 
amounted to $52,845,907,626.56. 



AFTER THE CENTENNIAL YEAU. 



403 



ments were resumed, more than nine hundred million dollars 
of the debt had been paid ; on November 1, lUOO, the debt 
was still twenty-one hundred million dollars. 




James Abram Garfield. 

229. Assassination of Garfield. — President Hayes was suc- 
ceeded by James Abram Garfield/ of Ohio, who had been a 

1 James Abram Garfield was born in Cuyahoga County, Ohio, November 19, 
1831. He was the youngest of four children, and his father died when he was 
but two years old. He grew up in poverty, but under the care of an heroic 



404 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 

major general in the Union army, and a member of Congress 
since 1863. He had held the office but four months when he 
was shot by a man who had been disappointed at failing to 
obtain an office under the administration. The President was 
not instantly killed. For three months he lay helpless, while 
the nation watched anxiously every turn in his condition. The 
sympathy shown by all parts of the country did much to draw 
the nation together and to lessen the old distrust. Garfield 
died September 19, 1881, and was succeeded by the Vice Presi- 
dent, Chester Alan Arthur,^ of New York. 

230. .Events in Arthur's Administration. — Mr. Arthur was 
President until March 4, 1885. During his administration 
two important public works were completed. The suspension 
bridge across the East Kiver, connecting New York city and 
Brooklyn, was opened for travel May 24, 1883 ; and the North- 
ern Pacific Eailroad was completed in August of the same 
year. There were also three important political measures. In 
1882, a bill was passed in Congress, known by the name of the 
senator who proposed it, the Edmunds Bill, which made polyg- 

mother. He was eager for books and study, and also craved a life of adven- 
ture; but after some experience as a canal boy, he worked his way through 
preparatory schools, and spent two years at AVilliams College, where he was 
graduated in 1856. He took a position as instructor in Hiram College, Ohio, 
and also engaged in the study of law. He was deeply interested in politics, 
and in 1859 was elected to the Ohio Senate. He was given a commission as 
lieutenant colonel in the Ohio infantry, and saw much active service, being 
promoted rapidly, till he reached the rank of major general. In 1863 he 
entered Congress, and was nine times successively elected from his district. 
He made himself a leader in the House, and finally was chosen to the Senate, 
but before he could take his seat, he received the nomination for the Presi- 
dency. 

1 The father of President Arthur was a Baptist clergyman who came to 
this country from the north of Ireland, when he was eighteen. Chester Alan 
Arthur was born at Fairfield, Vermont, October 5, 1830. He was educated 
at Union College, and was admitted to the bar in 1853. He took active part 
in the formation of the Republican party, and during the war had charge 
of the preparation and equipment of the New York State troops. He was 
appointed to be collector of the port of New York, in 1871, and in March, 1881, 
he took his seat as president of the Senate. He returned to private life after 
the expixation of his Presidential term, and died November 18, 1886. 



AFTER THE CENTENNIAL YEAR. 



405 



amy in the territories illegal. In consequence, the Mormon 
church in Utah formally abolished polygamy, making the way 
clear for the admission of the territory nito the Union as a 
State. In 1882, a bill was passed prohibiting Chinese laborers 
from coming into the United States. The settlement of the 
Pacific coast had drawn many men from China. These have 
helped to build railroads, to work the mines, and to do many 
kinds of household labor, 
but they have rarely be- 
come citizens. In 1884, 
the United States sent 
a representative to a 
conference of the great 
powers at Berlin respect- 
ing Africa, thus for the 
first time taking part 
with Europe in the ad- 
justment of world poli- 
tics. 

3tandard Time. — By 
an agreement between 
the principal railways 
the area of the United 
States was divided into 
four parallel sections, 
each fifteen degrees of 
longitude in width. On 
a fixed day, within each section all the railway clocks were 
made to agree, and the same measure of time was 
used from the eastern to the western boundaries of -. «Uq ' 
the section. Eastern time was marked by the 75th 
meridian ; Central, by the 90th ; Mountain, by the 105th ; and 
Pacific, by the 120th. When it was twelve o'clock at Phila- 
delphia, for example, it was twelve by the clock at Bangor, 
Maine, and at Cleveland, Ohio ; although by the sun it would 
be about half an hour later at Bangor, and half an hour earlier 




Chester Alan Arthur, 



406 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION, 

• 
at Cleveland. There was just an hour's difference in time be- 
tween the successive meridians. The convenience to travelers 
was so great that everybody adox^ted the scheme, and nearly 
all the clocks in the country are now set by standard time ; 
but it has been found advisable to modify here and there the 
lines of the belt where they would make inconvenient divisions. 

The postage on letters was reduced from three cents a half 
ounce to two cents ; and still later the rate was made two cents 

October ^^ ounce. Other improvements have been made in 

1883. the postal system, by which the government is able 

Julyl, to serve the x3eople better in their communication 

1885 with one another. 

The Washington Monument. — Immediately after the death 
of George Washington, Congress voted a monument to him at 
the Capitol ; but it was not till 1848 that the corner stone was 
laid. An association had then undertaken the work, and 
people throughout the country were called upon for contribu- 
tions of money ; all the States and some foreign nations con- 
tributed blocks of stone, but the work moved slowly. Finally 
Congress voted the necessary money to finish the monument, 
and it was dedicated February 21, 1885. It is 555 feet high. 

Death of General Grant. — On the 23d of July, 1885, Ulysses 
Simpson Grant died, the great general under whose leadership 
the war for the Union had been brought to a close. He had 
won the affection of his countrymen, and not only Northern 
but Southern soldiers mourned his loss. At his grave the 
country again stood united.^ 

1 After General Grant retired from the Presidency, he made a tour round 
the world, and was everywhere received with the honors due his illustrious 
career. He made his home, finally, in New York city, and took an interest 
in a banking firm in which his son was a partner. He lost heavily in the 
business, and devoted the last years of his life to the production of his memoirs, 
a book which not only had a great popularity, but justly occupies a high 
position as a piece of literature. After his death, a subscription was raised 
for the building of a stately tomb on the Riverside Drive, in New York ; and 
the building was dedicated with great pomp, April 27, 1807, in the presence of 
the President of the United States and a great concourse of civil and military 
dignitaries. 




Copyright, 1807, by J. S. Johnston. 



The Tomb of Grant. 



408 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 

231. Cleveland's First Administration. — In the election held in 
the autumn of 1884, the candidates of the Democratic party- 
were chosen, and President Arthur was followed by Grover 
Cleveland, of New York. Within a year the Vice President, 
Thomas A. Hendricks, died; and Congress, made 
|IUp-' mindful of the need of providing for the adminis- 
tration of the government, passed, not long after, a 
Presidential succession bill. By this bill, which has become a 
law, if the President dies, and there is no Vice President, the 
office of President is to be filled by a member of the Presi- 
dent's Cabinet, — the Secretary of State, if that member is liv- 
ing; if not living, then the first who may be living of the 
other Cabinet officers in a fixed order. (See page 440.) 

In October, 1886, a statue was unveiled on Bedloe's Island 
in the harbor of New York. It is called Liberty Enlighten- 
ing the World, and is the figure in bronze of a woman, sym- 
bolizing liberty, who holds aloft a light. The statue is a 
great electric lighthouse: it was designed by Bartholdi, a 
French sculptor, and given by people in the Bepublic of 
France to the United States. 

In February, 1887, Congress enacted a bill, known as the 
Dawes bill from the name of the senator who introduced it, 
by which the President was authorized, through special agents, 
to allot lands in Indian reservations to individual Indians, in- 
stead of allowing the land to be held in common by the tribes. 
By this means the Indians could become citizens, and take 
their place in the nation like other Americans. 

In 1887 Congress passed what is known as the Interstate 
Commerce Act. It provides for the regulation of commerce 
between the several States, especially with reference to the 
railroads which connect the different parts of the country. 
A commission is appointed under the bill to hear complaints 
and settle disputes. 

In 1888 Congress established a Department of Labor, whose 
duty it is to acquire and diffuse among the people of the 
United States useful information on subjects connected with 



AFTER THE CENTENNIAL YEAR. 



409 




Grover Cleveland.^ 



1 Grover Cleveland was born at Caldwell, New Jersey, March 18, 1837. He 
was the son of a Presbyterian clergyman, and for a while taught in an insti- 
tution for the blind. After his father's death, he studied law in Buffalo, was 
admitted to the bar in 1859, and in January, 1863, was appointed assistant 
district attorney for Erie County, an office which he held for three years. 
In 1870, he was elected sheriff of the county. He had attracted the attention 
of the people of Buffalo, and in 1881, he was elected mayor of the city. His 
strong executive ability became apparent, and in 1882 he was elected governor 
of New York by a very large majority. Again his conspicuous ability as an 
administrator of public affairs was made evident, and he became the Demo- 
cratic candidate for the Presidency, at the election held in 1884. 



410 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 



labor. The next year the Department of Agriculture was 
created as a new department in the administration of the 
government. The Secretary is a member of the President's 
Cabinet, and his duty is to look after the interests of the 
great farming population. 




Liberty Enlightening the World." 



232. Harrison's Administration. — At the election held in the 
autumn of 1888, the Republican party was victorious. Ben- 
jamin Harrison, of Indiana, was elected President, and Levi 
P. Morton, of New York, Vice President. The election was 
the first Presidential one conducted in any State under what 



AFTER THE CENTENNIAL YEAR. 



411 







Benjamin Harrison,^ 

1 The new President was grandson of the former President Harrison, and 
was horn at North Bend, Ohio, August 20, 1833. He was given the name of 
his grandfather's father, Benjamin Harrison, who was one of the signers of the 
Declaration of Independence. He was graduated at Miami University, in 
1852, and hegan the practice of law in Indianapolis. He hecame the colonel of 
an Indiana regiment in 1862, and rose to the rank of brigadier general. 
After the war, he returned to his profession, and in 1880 was elected to the 
Senate from Indiana. The political parties in the State were pretty evenly 
balanced, and he was defeated for reelection in 1885. He was a candidate 
for reelection to the Presidency, but was defeated, and retired to private life 
in 1893. He took active part in public affairs until his death, March 13, liK)l. 



412 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 

has come to be known as the Australian ballot law,' designed 
to give the greatest freedom to the voter, and to secure the 
most intelligent expression of choice. 

Oklahoma was originally a portion of Indian Territory and 

was sold by the Seminole Indians to the United States upon 

condition that only colonies of Indians or freedmen should be 

allowed to settle there. Congress, however, paid a large sum 

to secure entire right to the land, and in 1889 opened the 

country to white settlers. On the day when the territory was 

opened to settlement, great multitudes had gathered on 

^I'fiftQ^' *^^^ border ready to rush in and stake out claims 

under United States law, and so headlong was the 

rush that whereas, at noon, Guthrie was only a town site, at 

nightfall it was occupied by ten thousand inhabitants and had 

taken steps toward forming a city government. 

In the same year that Oklahoma was made a territory, four 
States were formed out of territories, — North Dakota, South 
Dakota, Washington, and Montana. In 1890, Idaho and Wyo- 
ming were added to the Union, and the Sioux reservation in 
South Dakota was thrown open to settlers. 

^1890^' ^^ February, 1890, a treaty was ratified by the 

Senate of the United States which provides for the 

just division of rights, between Great Britain, Germany, and 

the United States, in Samoa,^ an island of the Pacific, where 

the United States has a coaling station. 

The main issue of the general election in 1888 was the pro- 
tective tariff; and in accordance with the principles of the 
party in power. Congress, in 1890, passed a bill popularly 
called, from the name of its chief promoter, the McKinley 
Tariff bill, which undertook, in a very elaborate series of 
sections, to revise the existing laws respecting duties on im- 

1 The system was adopted in Australia as early as 1856, and was in use in 
Quebec and Nova Scotia in 1875. The first formal introduction of the system 
in the United States was in Michigan in 1887. All the territories and all the 
States but five have (1897) adopted ballot-reform laws. 

2 We know more about Samoa from its having been the home of Robert 
Louis Stevenson, than perhaps from any other source. 



AFTER THE CENTENNIAL YEAR. 413 

ports. Under this act reciprocity treaties were entered into 
with Brazil, Santo Domingo, Spain, and other nations. 

The passage of the McKinley bill called out vigorous political 
discussion, and at the next congressional election, in the autumn 
of 1890, the Democratic party, which opposed the high protec- 
tive tariff, gained control of the national House of Eepresenta- 
tives. At the election in 1892, the same party was still 
further successful. It secured a majority in Congress, and 
again placed Grover Cleveland in the President's chair, with 
Adlai E. Stevenson, of Illinois, as Vice President. 

233. Cleveland's Second Administration The four hun- 
dredth anniversary of the discovery of America was made the 
occasion for a great world's fair, and several cities were rivals 
for the honor of holding it. Government was to have an 
active part in it, and Congress therefore was called on to de- 
cide the question. It was a sign of the great expansion of 
the country, and of the wide world relations that a city was 
chosen which was far away from the Atlantic coast, and that 
some of the most important contributions to the exhibition 
came across the Pacific Ocean from Asia. 

The Expositions in Chicago and Atlanta. — The World's Colum- 
bian Exposition was held in 1893 in the city of Chicago, and 
was upon a larger scale than any world's fair ever before 
held. But its chief glory was in the exceeding beauty of the 
buildings, and the park which was made as if by magic from 
the marshy borders of Lake Michigan. Two years later, the 
Cotton States and International Exposition was opened at 
Atlanta, Georgia. Atlanta was a city of one hundred 
thousand inhabitants, forty per cent of them being ^^gc ' 
negroes, but such was the energy with which the 
South entered into the project for showing its resources and 
industry, that the fair was second only to that at Chicago. 
A notable achievement was the building designed, built, and 
furnished wholly by negroes. Nothing could have shown more 
plainly the great advance made by the emancipated race, and 
the good feeling existing between them and the whites. 



414 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION, 

International Arbitration and Venezuela. — The great exhibi- 
tions did much to make clear the growth of the United States, 
but a nation does not stand by itself, apart from other nations : 
it has a place in the world ; it has duties and rights in common 
with other nations ; it exchanges courtesies with them ; and as 
steam and electricity bring the continents nearer each other, 
the United States will have still more to do with Great Britain 
and its colonies, Germany and its colonies, Hawaii, Japan, and 
China. Not only so, but there are signs that the nation is to 
share with other nations in the decision of questions of inter- 
national politics. 

For many years the South American state, Venezuela, had 

been engaged in determining its boundaries v/ith the adjacent 

British possessions. The United States government endeavored 

to bring the dispute to an end, and in 1895, President Cleveland 

sent a message to Congress, saying in effect that alL 

IfiQ^ ' ^t^®^ means had failed, and asking for authority to 
appoint a commission which should determine the 
boundaries, in order that the United States might act if it 
should prove that Great Britain was claiming more than be- 
longed to it by right. Congress immediately gave the Presi- 
dent the authority he asked for. 

The incident was taken on both sides of the Atlantic as an 
indication that the Monroe Doctrine is to be made more em- 
phatic, and that the United States is to exercise such control 
over the American continent as will prevent European powers 
from extending their territory under any pretext. After 
further debate between the United States and Great Britain,. a 
treaty was entered into which provided for the settlement of 
the Venezuela boundary question by a board of arbitration. 
The whole affair led to an earnest endeavor on the part of 
many Americans and Englishmen to establish the principle of 
arbitration in all international disputes. 

234. The Election of McKinley. — In the general election of 
1896, the principal question at issue was the financial policy 
of the country. VS^illiam J. Bryan, of Nebraska, was the candi- 



AFTER THE CENTENNIAL YEAR. 



415 




H\ 



mi 




' \'i 



i)'i''',.''''''ii 






William McKinley.^ 

1 The new President's name has already appeared as the member of Con- 
gress who was chairman of the Ways and Means Committee which reported 
the tariff bill of 1890. He was born at Niles, Trumbull County, Ohio, January 
29, 1843, and was still a student when the war for the Union occurred. He 
enlisted as a private soldier, was promoted through the several ranks till 
he was brevetted major for gallant and meritorious services at the battles of 
Opequan, Fisher's Hill, and Cedar Creek. After the war, he returned to Ohio, 
studied law, and began practice in Canton. He was elected to Congress in 
1S70, and served continuously until March, 1891, except for part of his fourth 
term, when he was unseated by his opponent. He was twice elected governor 
of Ohio, in 1891, and in 189;5, and has been in great demand as a public speaker 
throughout his political career. 



416 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 

date of those who " demanded the free and unlimited coinage 
of both silver and gold at the present legal ratio of 16 to 1, 
without waiting for the aid or consent of any other nation." ^ 
William McKinley, of Ohio, was supported by those who main- 
tained that the true policy was to use gold as the standard 
of value, in accordance with the practice of the other great 
nations ; and the Republican party was " opposed to the free 
coinage of silver, except by international agreement with the 
leading commercial nations of the worhl, which we pledge our- 
selves to promote, and until such agreement can be obtained, 
the existing gold standard must be preserved." ^ Mr. McKinley 
was elected. 

235. Causes of the Spanish War. — The island of Cuba was 
settled by Spain in 1511. From the beginning Spain regarded 
the island as a source of revenue rather than as an integral 
part of the Spanish nation. By a system of taxation she- 
sought to enrich herself at the expense of Cuba; and she sent 
a series of governors who, for the most part, made short stays, 
and returned wealthy. 

The misery resulting from Spanish misgovernment led to a 
succession of revolts with breathing spells when Spain made 
some slight concessions. 

In 1895 a fresh and determined effort was made by Cuban 
leaders, especially Maximo Gomez, to force Spain to grant 
independence. The Spanish governor, General Weyler, met 
the attempt by measures of the most severe character. He 
undertook to concentrate non-combatants into the cities and 
then laid waste the surrounding country. This infuriated the 
Cubans without greatly diminishing their strength, and caused 
the starvation of thousands of innocent people. 

President Cleveland had warned Spain that the United 
States had such large interests in Cuba as to make it impossi- 
ble to suffer the disorders to continue. President McKinley 
instructed General Woodford, the American minister to Sj^ain, 

1 From the platform of the Democratic party. 

2 From the platform of the Republican party. 



AFTER THE CENTENNIAL VEAIl. 417 

to urge upon the Spanish government such a change in the 
treatment of Cuba as would make an end of the rebellion. 

Spain yielded to the pressure brought by the United States, 
recalled General Weyler and sent General Blanco as governor, 
with a new plan for the government of Cuba. The 
insurgents refused to accept the offer of " autonomy " -1^007^' 
or self-government, and both governments, the Spanish 
and the American, seemed to be at a loss what step next to 
take, when an incident occurred which rapidly brought matters 
to a crisis. 

236. Outbreak of the Spanish War. — The United States 
battle-ship Maine, which was lying at anchor in the harbor of 
Havana, was blown up. Of the 354 officers and men 
on board at the time, 204 were killed, and others died Aq« ' 
afterM^ard from wounds received. A great cry arose 
at once from the j)eople of the United States, and multitudes 
were ready to believe that the exx^losion was caused by Spanish 
officers in Havana. A Court of Inquiry was appointed, and 
judgment was suspended until it should report. Meanwhile, 
Congress appropriated fifty million dollars to be used at the 
discretion of the President for the defense of the United States 
in a possible war. 

Spain disowned any complicity in the Maine disaster. The 
Court of Inquiry found " that the ship was destroyed by the 
explosion of a submarine mine, which caused the partial ex- 
X)losion of two or more of her forward magazines, and that 
no evidence has been attainable fixing the responsibility for 
the destruction of the Maine upon any person or persons." 

The President sent a message to Congress asking 
for authority and power " to secure a full termination J^ogn ' 
of hostilities betw^een the government of Spain and 
people of Cuba, and to secure in the island the establishment 
of a stable government." Thereupon, Congress passed 
a series of resolutions affirming that it was the right J'ggg ' 
of the Cuban people to be free and independent, and 
the duty of the United States to demand of Spain that she 



418 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 

• 
relinquish her authority over Cuba and withdraw her land and 
naval forces. The President was directed to use the land and 
naval forces of the United States and to call out the militia to 
accomplish this purx30se. Finally, it was stated "that the 
United States hereby disclaims any disposition or intention to 
exercise sovereignty, jurisdiction, or control over said island 
[of Cuba], except for the pacification thereof ; and asserts its 
determination, when that is accomplished, to leave the govern- 
ment and control of the island to its people." 

Spain at once notified General Woodford that diplomatic 
relations between Spain and the United States were at an end. 
Congress, on receipt of a message from the President, passed 
a bill declaring that war had begun on the 21st of April, the 
day when General Woodford received his passports. Mean- 
while, the department of war and of the navy had been ener- 
getically preparing for this emergency. The President called 
for 125,000 troops to serve two years, and a blockade of Cuban 
ports was ordered. 

237. Events of the Spanish War. — Suddenly, to the amaze- 
ment of the world, the first great battle was fought not near 
Cuba, but in the Eastern Hemisphere. The Philippine Islands 
were also under the dominion of Spain, and also in a state of 
revolt. In consequence of this, there was a considerable Span- 
ish fleet in the harbor of Manila. Commodore Dewey, in 
command of the Pacific squadron of the American 
,^Ip' navy, attacked this fleet May 1, and in an engagement 
of two hours annihilated it (without the loss of a man 
or boat on his side), and thus had the city of Manila at his 
mercy. Our government at once took measures to send an 
army under General Merritt to occupy Manila. 

The first point of attack in Cuba was the city of Santiago. 

The army under General Shafter invested the place, and the 

fleet under Admiral Sampson guarded the entrance to the 

harbor, within which was a Spanish fleet under Admiral Cer- 

July 3, vera. Not long after the army attacked Santiago, 

1898. Cervera took his fleet out of the harbor and made a 



AFTER THE CENTENNIAL YEAR. 419 

bold attempt to escape, but the American fleet attacked the 
Spanish, destroyed it, and took the admiral prisoner. 

The Spanish army in Santiago surrendered to General 
Shafter, and by the terms of the surrender the United States 
government agreed to send the "prisoners back to Spain. 
Meanwhile, General Miles, the commander-in-chief of the 
army, landed with troops on the island of Porto Rico, and met 
with little opposition. Before he could move on San Juan, 
word came that Spain had sued for peace. 

238. Peace with Spain. — On August 1 the Spanish govern- 
ment, through M. Cambon, the envoy of France to the United 
States, asked what terms of peace would be granted. There 
was an exchange of notes, and on August 12, M. Cam- 
bon, on the part of Spain, and Hon. William R. Day, ,"|q^ ' 
Secretary of State, on the part of the United States, 
signed a protocol which was to form the basis of a treaty of 
peace. 

By the articles of this protocol, Spain pledged herself to 
renounce all claims to sovereignty in Cuba; to cede Porto 
Rico, and all her other possessions in the West Indies, to the 
United States ; to evacuate all these islands ; to cede an island 
in the Ladrone archipelago, to be chosen by the United States, 
and to yield to the United States possession of the city and 
bay and port of Manila, pending the conclusion of a treaty of 
peace, which should determine the control and form of govern- 
ment of the Philippine Islands. On the day after the signing 
of the protocol, but before this action was known in Manila, 
Admiral Dewey and General Merritt had made a combined 
attack on that city and captured it. 

The signing of the protocol with Spain was taken as equiva- 
lent to the ending of the war. By the terms of the document, 
an armistice was agreed upon, and the United States at once 
began recalling its soldiers from Cuba and Porto Rico (except 
such as were required for garrison purposes) and reducing the 
navy more nearly to a peace footing. The President appointed 
William R. Day, who was Secretary of State, Senators Cush- 



420 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 

• 
man K. Davis, William P. Frye, George Gray, and Mr. White- 
law Reid commissioners on the part of the United States, to 
meet a like number of commissioners from Spain, in the city 
of Paris, there to frame a treaty of peace between the two 
countries. 

The principal questions under consideration were the status 
of Cuba, the disposition of Porto Rico, and the disposition of 
the Philippines. Special commissioners quickly arranged for 
the removal of the few troops in Porto Rico, and in January, 
1898, the Spanish army, estimated at 120,000 men, was all 
withdrawn from the island of Cuba. Meanwhile the 
IfiQfi ' ^^'^^^y ^^ peace was finally signed, so that the total 
duration of the war was less than eight months. The 
sovereignty over Cuba was given up but was not transferred 
to the United States. The treaty provided that " It is under- 
stood that any obligations assumed in this treaty by the 
United States with respect to Cuba are limited to the time of 
its occupancy thereof; but it will, upon the termination of 
such occupancy, advise any government established in the 
island to assume the same obligations." The United States 
thus undertook only to occupy the country temporarily, and to 
protect life and property. Porto Rico and the little island of 
Guam in the Ladrone Islands in the Pacific were transferred 
absolutely. The third article provided that " Spain cedes to 
the United States the archipelago known as the Philippine 
Islands." The inhabitants of these islands were to be -pvo- 
tected in their private property and the free exercise of their 
religion. The United States agreed to pay to Spain the sum 
of $20,000,000, which was in a sense purchase money for tlie 
Philippines. 

Meanwhile, a strong opposition had developed in the United 
States to the annexation of the Philippines, on the ground that 
the region was a distant one, inhabited by a large population 
of alien race, language, religion, and customs ; and that the 
natives were unwilling to accept the sovereignty of the United 
States. It proved, however, impossible to make this a party 



AFTER THE CENTENNIAL TEAR. 421 

question, and the treaty was duly ratified. Thus, after nearly 
four centuries of continuous occupation, the great 
eastern and western colonial possessions of Spain were -inqq' • 
swept away. Spain, which at the beginning of the 
English colonization claimed most of the continents of Korth 
and South America and all of the West India Islands, has now 
not a single square foot of dominion in the western hemisphere. 

239. The Government of the New Dependencies. — The transfer 
of the Philippines did not give the United States possession, 
for a strong and warlike party had arisen which was deter- 
mined that the Filipinos should be independent. Aguinaldo, 
the popular leader, had been engaged in a movement against 
the Spaniards, and at the beginning of the war was in Hong- 
kong. He was brought back to the island on an American 
ship of war, organized his countrymen against the Spaniards 
in Manila, and besieged the city by land, while it was invested 
on the sea side by the American fleet. President 
McKinley directed that the power of the United ,^«qp ' 
States should be extended over the territory, and that 
the natives who resisted should be compelled to obey. He 
appointed a commission, at the head of which was President 
J. G. Schurman of Cornell University, to assist in organizing 
a government; but Aguinaldo's army finally attacked 
the American forces before Manila, and the struggle -inqq' 
continued for more than two years. Within a few 
months, the Americans occupied the principal towns through- 
out the islands, and made a friendly treaty with the Sultan 
of the Sulu Islands, the southern group of the Philippines. 
In the course of a year the Filipino army in the field was 
dispersed, but numerous and troublesome guerrilla bands con- 
tinued a harassing warfare for months afterward. In 
the spring of 1901, by the capture of Aguinaldo, the , qq-, 
opposition of the Filipinos to a government by the 
United States was confined to a small group. 

For two years no action was taken by Congress looking 
toward the establishment of a government for the Philippines ; 



422 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 

but the President authorized the commission to make an in- 
vestigation and an elaborate report, which much influenced 
public opinion by its decided statement that the Filipinos were 
not capable of keeping np a stable government for themselves. 
In February, 1900, President McKinley appointed a new gov- 
ernmental commission, headed by Judge Taft, of Ohio, with 
authority to constitute both general and local governments in 
the islands. Although the war continued, the commission 
made such headway that in March, 1901, Congress voted that 
"All military, civil, and judicial powers necessary to govern 
the Philippine Islands shall, until otherwise provided by Con- 
gress, be vested in such manner as the President of the United 
States shall direct, for the establishment of civil government, 
and for maintaining and protecting the inhabitants of said 
islands in the free enjoyment of their liberty, property, and 
religion." By this clause a government is to be set up of a- 
new kind in the history of the United States : the Philippines 
become a colony, not directly governed by Congress, nor by a 
local legislature. 

Three other additions to the territory of the United States 
were made in 1898-99. In July, 1897, a bill was introduced 
for annexing the Hawaiian Islands to the United States, but 
action was postponed until the Spanish War began, when the 
bill was passed by Congress ; and it was accepted by the govern- 
ment of the Hawaiian republic. A few months later Congress 
made Hawaii a territory of the United States with a regular 
governor and legislature. The Samoan Islands, in which the 
United States had for about ten years been sharing dominion 
with Great Britain and Germany, were redistributed by a 
treaty of Dec. 2, 1899, the United States receiving the 
island of Tutuila with the splendid harbor of Pago-pago. 
The uninhabited Wake Island, lying about halfway between 
the Hawaiian Islands and the Philippines, was also occupied 
in January, 1899. 

The question of how the United States should treat its new 
possessions was raised in another form by a debate on a tariff 



AFTER THE CENTENNIAL YEAR. 423 

bill for Porto Kico in 1900. The President re eo mm ended 
that Congress should give the same privileges of unrestricted 
trade between the continent and Porto Rico as between the 
various states of the Union. Instead, a bill was introduced, 
by which the Porto Ricans were to have the United States 
tariff as against foreign nations, and a tariff was also to be 
levied on exports from Porto Pico to the Plnited States. 
In the end a compromise was adopted by which a special 
rate of duties was to be levied for two years on products 
moving both ways ; and out of the proceeds a large sum was 
to be turned over to the island for immediate needs. Under 
an act of Congress, a ci«s^il governor was appointed for Porto 
Pico, and steps were taken to organize its laws, and especially 
its finances. 

The relations of the United States with Cuba have been very 
unusual ; for while it has been the purpose of the government 
to allow the Cubans to form a government of their own, it was 
necessary to take steps to pacify and improve the island while 
the Cubans were getting ready. Most of the United States 
troops Avere rapidly withdraAvn, but a military governor. Gen- 
eral Wood, was appointed, who was the highest authority in 
the island. The United States provided for improving the 
health conditions of the cities, for founding the first general 
system of public schools, for reorganizing the Post Office, 
and like purposes : for all these purposes taxes were levied 
and collected on the island. In 1901 a Cuban consti- 
tutional convention was called and drew up a form of repub- 
lican government for the island. Before the convention 
adjourned, Congress passed a series of resolutions, defining 
the future relations of Cuba and the United States, and then 
itself adjourned before an agreement between the two coun- 
tries was reached. 

Thus within three years after the sudden breaking out of 
the Spanish War, the United States has become possessed of 
the islands of Porto Eico, Wake, Guam, the Philippine Islands, 
Hawaii, and a part of the Samoan Islands. It has thus ceased 



424 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 

to be wholly a North American power ; it has even extended 
beyond the neighboring West Indies, and by the j^ossession of 
the Philippines it has become a great power in the Pacific, 
and more interested than ever before in the fnture of China 
and of eastern Asia. 

240. Political and Commercial Events. — Although the atten- 
tion of the country, during the three years from 1898 to 1901, 
was much occupied by the war, by the negotiation of the treaty 
of peace and by the adjustment of territorial government for the 
various dependencies of the United States, yet the period was 
full of interesting discussions of other public questions. The 
steady growth of the great combinations of capital, usually 
called trustS;^ surprised and at the same time alarmed the 
people. The owners of the two greatest American railroad 
systems, the New York Central and the Pennsylvania Rail- 
road, came to an understanding, by which they were to be 
carried on with a common purpose ; and most of the parallel 
lines, such as the Baltimore and Ohio, the Chesapeake and 
Ohio, and the Erie Railroad, came also under the same influ- 
ence ; so that all the main lines f vom the seaboard to Chicago 
were under the same control, although not under a single 
ownership. The immense carrying trade of the Great Lakes 
has also passed into the hands of a combination which does 
the great part of the business. The owners of the iron mines 
of the Lake Superior region and elsewhere, of the furnaces for 
making pig iron, and of steel works and mills for rolling rails 
and steel for buildings, combined into several large trusts; 
and in 1901 these were united into one enormous corporation, 
having a stated, capital of more than eleven hundred million 
dollars — about the amount of the national debt. One of the 
results of this combination was a payment in one block of 
nearly $200,000,000 to Mr. Andrew Carnegie, who owned some 
of the most important properties taken over by the trusts ; 
and he at once began to distribute his great income in the 
foundation of public libraries and other instruments for doing 
good. The principal agent in these enormous transactions was 



AFTER THE CENTENNIAL YEAR. 425 

Mr. J. Pierpont Morgan, a banker of New York, who has 
shown himself the ablest of the American financiers. 

In 1900 the election was duly held for the presidency of the 
United States. The first convention, that of the Democratic 
party, was held at St. Louis. Mr. William J. Bryan 
was a second time nominated upon a platform de- ioqa' 
daring for the free coinage of silver at the ratio of 
sixteen to one. With him was associated as candidate for the 
vice-presidency, Mr. Adlai E.- Stevenson, vice-president of the 
United States from 1893 to 1897. For the Republican nomi- 
nation there was little contest: Admiral Dewey at one time 
seemed inclined to seek the nomination, but there was no oppo- 
sition to the renomination of Mr. McKinley. The 
convention enthusiastically nominated Theodore Roose- -. q^^ ' 
velt. Governor of New York, for vice-president. In 
the campaign the issue of free silver was very soon dropped, 
and the main discussion came on the question of expansion 
and of the government of the territories. In the election Mr. 
McKinley received 292 electoral votes, and Mr. Bryan 155. 
On the 4th of March, 1901, Mr. McKinley took the oath of 
office at the beginning of his second term. 



QUESTIONS. 



How was the centennial year celebrated ? What great electrical inven- 
tion was made known in 1870 ? Narrate the incidents of the Sioux War. 
What gave occasion for the Electoral Commission ? When were specie 
payments resumed ? Give an account of President Garfield. Mention 
some of the important events in President Arthur's administration. 
What is standard time ? What is the order of succession to the Presi- 
dency ? What steps have been taken to make citizens of the Indians ? 
What. is the Interstate Commerce Act? What department was added 
to the administration in 1888 ? Who succeeded President Cleveland ? 
Describe the opening of Oklahoma. What new States were added in 
1889 ? in 1890 ? What was the McKinley bill ? Describe the two great 
expositions. What was the Venezuela question ? Who is now President ? 



426 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 

What were the defects of Spanish government in Cuba ? Who was the 
Cuban leader ? What did the United States do for the Cubans ? What 
was the Maine incident ? What did Congress promise in beginning war ? 
How did we come to take the Philippine Islands ? What were the princi- 
pal points in the treaty of peace with Spain ? What was the relation of 
the United States to Cuba before the peace ? How did war begin with 
the Filipinos ? What was the Schurman Commission ? What was the 
Taft Commission ? What are the present island possessions of the United 
States? What was the Porto Rican tariff? How has the United States 
exercised its protectorate over Cuba ? How did the great railroads come 
under one management ? How did the manufacture of iron and steel 
come under one management ? Who were the candidates for the presi- 
dency in 1900 ? What were the issues of the campaign ? 

SEARCH QUESTIONS. 

What is the extent of the public lands belonging to the nation ? Name 
some of the great reservations. Name some great electrical inventions. 
What troubles had the United States with Spain prior to 1898 ? What 
territory had been added to the United States by Congress prior to 1898 ? 
What great naval victories had been won by the United States prior to 
1898 ? What is a trust ? What has cheapened the cost of steel ? 

SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. 

Composition : 

A day at the Chicago Exposition. 

A visit to Cuba. 

On a ship of war. 

A visit to a blast furnace. 

A visit to a steel mill. 

The character of Aguinaldo. 
Debates : 

llesolved^ That Tilden was elected President. 

JResolved, That there should be an arbitration treaty between the 
United States and Great Britain. 

Besolved, That the Filipinos ought to have the same kind of govern- 
ment as the people of New Mexico. 

Besolved, That trusts ought to be prohibited by law. 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

THE PRESENT NATION. 

241. A survey of the United States at the present time shows 
it to be a very different country from that which took its place 
among the nations of the world near the close of the eighteenth 
century. Its boundaries are different ; the people who occupy 
the land are twenty times as many in number and are different 
in life ; the government, though the same in form, has grown 
more complex. 

The United States now lies between the two great oceans of 
the world. The Atlantic is still the central sea, as the Medi- 
terranean was before it; but the Pacific is also becoming a 
great highway for commerce and trade between America and 
the ancient peoples of Asia, as well as the rapidly growing 
British commonwealth in the continent of Australia. The 
country is still bounded by Canada on the north, but in the ex- 
treme northwest it stretches so near the coast of Asia that San 
Francisco is on the middle meridian of longitude. On the south- 
west is the republic of Mexico, very much smaller than the 
Spanish possession of that name which was once the neighbor 
of the United States. The Union is at peace with its neigh- 
bors. From Canada it receives every year considerable addi- 
tions to its population. A new invasion of Mexico has indeed 
begun, but it is the peaceful invasion of commerce. Railways 
are pushing down along the great plateau which reaches from 
the United States into the heart of the country, making thus 
a closer connection between the two peoples. 

242. The States. — There are now forty-five States in the 
Union, and six territories, including Alaska and the Dis- 

2 E 427 



428 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION, 

trict of Columbia.^ A census of the United States is taken 
every ten years, and by the census of 1900 it was found that 
the entire population then numbered more than seventy-six mil- 
lions. These States and territories constitute the political divi- 
sions of the country. The country is also divided into military 
divisions, and into divisions which follow the great physical 
features. These last divisions are used by the United States 
Weather Bureau, which has a central office at Washington, and 
more than two hundred stations throughout the country. By 
means of this service the approach of storms and changes in 
the weather can be announced several hours, and even days, in 
advance. The signals are of special value to sailors and farmers. 
Thus the general government makes use of science to benefit 
the people of the entire country. 

Each State has its own government; each has its capital, 
where the governor resides and where the legislature meets. 
Each has a constitution which has been drafted and ratified 
by its own citizens, and it has laws which have been made by 
its own legislature. The constitution and laws of each State 
must, however, conform to the Constitution of the United 
States. The right to vote is conferred by the State. In a 
majority of the States a limited franchise has been conferred 
on women, and in Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, and Idaho women 
have the same right of suffrage as men. At the same time the 
people of the whole country have a government which concerns 
itself with the affairs of the whole nation. It is administered 
by a President, two houses of Congress, and courts of law, with 
the capital at Washington. 

243. The President and Congress. — Every four years the 
people are called upon to choose a President and Vice Presi- 
dent. They do not vote directly for these officers, but they 

1 The District of Columbia is under the exclusive legislation of Congress, 
and its inhabitants do not vote for President or Vice President or have a voice 
in the affairs of the District. The government consists of three commission- 
ers, two of whom are appointed from civil life by the President with the ad- 
vice and consent of the Senate. The third is an officer of the corps of engineers 
of the army, detailed by the President for this duty. 



THE PRESENT NATION. 



429 



choose in each State certain men called electors, to whom they 
have indicated their wishes. These electors meet and cast the 
vote for the people ; the choice of the electors is then declared 
to Congress. The President is commander-in-chief of the army 
and navy. Every bill passed by Congress becomes a law when he 
has signed it, and also, as has already been shown, when he re- 
turns it to Congress without his signature and each House again 
passes it by a two-thirds vote. The President also appoints 
the ministers to foreign countries, the judges of the national 




The City of Washington. 

courts, and the principal officers of the government ; but his 
appointments must be confirmed by the Senate. 

Congress consists of two houses, — the Senate and the House 
of Representatives. Each State is represented in the Senate 
by two senators elected by the legislature of the State, and 
chosen for a term of six years each. The Vice President of 
the United States is the president of the Senate. 

The House of Representatives is made up of members chosen 
directly by the people in the several States ; and the number 
from each State is proportioned to the population of the State. 
Each member is chosen for a term of two years. The presid- 



430 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 

ing officer is chosen by the members, and is called the speaker, 
because in England, where the title was first used, the speaker 
of the House of Commons spoke for the whole body, when 
addressing the crown. As the House has become larger, with 
the increase of population in the country, the amount of busi- 
ness before it has become greater. This business is, for the 
most part, first considered by different committees. It is very 
difficult to pass any measure in the House if a committee 
has advised against it. Hence most of the real business of 
legislation is done in the committees; and the speaker, who 
appoints the committees, is one of the most important members 
of the government. His office is regarded by many as second 
only to that of the President. 

244. The Judiciary. — There are four grades of United States 
courts, — the District Court, the Circuit, the Appellate, and the 
Supreme. The whole country is divided into districts and cir- 
cuits, and judges hold courts in different localities. The Su- 
preme Court, with a chief justice, sits only as a body at 
Washington ; the members serve on circuits when not in session 
as a court at Washington. The judges are appointed for life, 
but they can be removed from office by process of impeachment. 

245. The Gettysburg Speech of Abraham Lincoln. — While the 
nation is thus governed according to republican forms, the 
power resides in the people. They are constantly called upon 
to declare at the polls their choice of officers in the State and 
nation. These officers are the servants of the people, chosen 
to execute the will of the people. Thus it depends upon the 
people whether the nation shall be upright, honest, and God- 
fearing. After the battle of Gettysburg, the nation caused the 
ground on which it was fought to become a great burial ground 
for the bodies of men who fell in battle. There are memorial 
stones to dead heroes, and rows upon rows of graves where lie 
faithful men whose names have perished with them. When 
the ground was dedicated, Abraham Lincoln, who was himself 
soon to be a martyr for his country, spoke these solemn words 
which should never die out of the memory of his countrymen : 



THE PRESENT NATION. 431 



ABRAHAM LINCOLN'S SPEECH 

At the Dedication of the National Cemetery, Gettysburg, 
Pennsylvania, November 19, 1863. 

Fourscore and seven years ago, our fathers brought forth 
on this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and 
dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. 
Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that 
nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long 
endure. We are met on a great battlefield of that war. We 
have come to dedicate a portion of that field as a final resting 
place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might 
live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. 
But in a larger sense we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, 
we cannot hallow, this ground. The brave men, living and 
dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it far above our poor 
power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long 
remember, what we say here, but it can never forget what they 
did here. It is for us, the living, rather to be dedicated here 
to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus 
far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated 
to the great task remaining before us, — that from these hon- 
ored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which 
they gave the last full measure of devotion, — that we here 
highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain, — 
that this nation under God shall have a new birth of freedom ; 
and that government of the people, by the people, for the 
people, shall not perish from the earth. 



432 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 



QUESTIONS. 

Compare the United States of to-day with the same country in 1783. 
How many States and territories are there ? What is the work of the 
United States Signal Service ? How are the separate States governed ? 
Who are the voters ? How are the President and Vice President elected ? 
What are the duties of the President ? of the Vice President ? What con- 
stitutes Congress ? How is the business of the House conducted ? How 
many grades are there of the United States courts ? 

SEARCH QUESTIONS. 

Is the District of Columbia the same size as when first created ? What 
is the population of your State ? How does the speaker of the House of 
Representatives differ from the speaker of the House of Commons ? Are 
political conventions recognized in the Constitution ? 

SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. 

Compositions; 

The history of a bill in Congress. 
A day at the polls. 

Debates: 

Resolved^ That the President and Vice President should be elected by 
direct vote. 

Besolved, That the suffrage should be given to women. 

Resolved, That the judges in the several States should be appointed 
for life by the governors. 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS FOR REVIEW. 

The United States in the Middle of the Nineteenth Century. 

1. In its external relations. 
a. Exploration, 170. 

h. Immigration, 171, 174. 

2. In its internal life. 

a. Expansion of administration, 168. 

b. Development of resources. 

i. Through electricity, 169. 
ii. Through railroads, 169. 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS. 433 

iii. Through great bridges, 169. 
iv. Through new h\bor, 174. 
V. Through hibor-saving machines, 172. 

c. Intellectual equipment. 

i. Societies, 175. 
ii. Lectures, 175. 
iii. Newspapers, 175. 
iv. Books, 175. 

d. Growth of cities, 173. 

II. The Struggle between Slavery and Antislavery. 

1. The conflict in Congress, 177. 

2. The conflict in the territories, 177. 

3. The part played by the Supreme Court, 180. 

4. The conflict of parties, 179, 182. 

5. The personal movement of John Brown, 181. 

6. The conflict in Presidential elections, 179, 182, 

III. Revolt of the Slave States. 

1. The way the South regarded the Union, 183. 

2. The action of South Carolina, 184. 

3. The action of the remaining Southern States, 184, 189. 

4. The formation of the Confederacy, 184. 

5. The assumption of authority by the Confederacy, 185. 

6. The action of the United States government, 185, 187. 

7. The feeling in the country at large, 186. 

8. The new President and the problem before him, 187. 

9. The affair of Fort Sumter, 188. 

10. The immediate effect of the attack on the fort, 188, 189. 

IV. The Struggle between the Union and the Confederacy. 

1. The parties to the conflict, 189, 190. 

2. The chief battle ground, 189. 

3. The first meeting, 191. 

4. The effect of the defeat at Bull Pun, 191. 

5. The part played by slavery, 192, 202. 

6. Relations of the two parties to other countries, 193, 194. 

7. Campaigns of 1862. 

a. At the West, 195, 196, 197. 

b. At the East, 198, 199, 200. 

8. Congressional action, 191, 192, 193, 201. 

9. Campaigns of 1863. 

a. In Virginia and on the border, 203. 

b. In the West, 204. 
2f 



434 Bt:VELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 

10. Campaigns of 1864. 
a. At the East, 205. 

6. Naval engagements, 206. 
• c. At the West, 207. 

d. Sherman's march, 208, 209. 

11. Close of the war, 210, 211. 

12. President Lincoln and his death, 211, 212. 

13. The sentiment of the people after the war. 

a. As seen in the terms of peace, 214. 

b. In the treatment of Confederates, 214, 215. 

c. In its treatment of soldiers and sailors, 213. 

V. Reconstruction of the Union. 

1. The abolition of slavery. 

a. The constitutional abolition, 216. 

b. The enactments in the interest of the freedmen, 216 

c. The condition of the freedmen, 216, 217. 

2. The restoration of the Southern States. 

a. The provisional government by Congress, 216. 

b. The return of the States into the Union, 215, 219. 

c. The condition of the former slaveholders, 217. 

d. Northern men at the South, 217. 

e. Final withdrawal of Federal supervision, 227. 

3. Relations with other nations. 

a. With England, 221. 

b. With France, 221. 

VI. The United States at the End of the Century. 

1. In its external relations. 

a. Its neighbors. 

i. The Indians, 226, 231. 
ii. The Chinese, 230. 
iii. Mexico, 221, 241. 
iv. South America, 232, 233. 

v. The South Pacific, 232, 241. 
vi. Canada, 24L 

b. Its modes of communication, 220. 

2. In its internal life. 

a. Territorial development, 220, 232. 

h. Development of material resources, 222, 225, 230, 231, 233. 

c. Improvement of life, 225, 230, 242- 

3. As a political organism. 
a. Its Executive, 243- 



THE ADMINISTRATIONS. 435 

6. Its Legislative, 243. 

c. Its Judiciary, 244. 

d. Its State life, 242. 

e. Its activity in political reform, 224, 227, 230, 231, 232. 

VII. Tfie Lesson of History. 

Abraham Lincoln's speech, 245. 



THE ADMINISTRATIONS. 
Sixteenth Administration. 

1849-1853. 

President, Zachary Taylor, Louisiana. 

Millard Fillmore, New York. From July 10, 1850. 
Vice President, Millard Fillmore. 
Cabinet : 

Secretary of State, John M. Clayton, Delaware. 

Daniel Webster. From July 20, 1850. 
Edward Everett, Massachusetts. F'rom December 
9, 1852. 
Secretary of Treasury, William M. Meredith, Pennsylvania. 

Thomas Corwin, Ohio. From July 20, 1850. 
Secretary of War, George W. Crawford, Georgia. 

Charles M. Conrad, Virginia. From July 20, 1850, 
Secretary of Navy, William B. Preston, Virginia. 

William A. Graham, North Carolina. From July 

20, 1850. 
John P. Kennedy, Maryland. From July 22, 1852. 
Secretary of Interior, Thomas Ewing, Ohio. 

James A. Pearce, Maryland. From July 20, 

1850. 
Alexander H. H. Stuart, Virginia. From Sep- 
tember 12, 1850. 
Postmaster General, Jacob Collamer, Vermont. 

N. K. Hall, New York. From July 20, 1850. 
Samuel D. Hubbard, Connecticut. From Aug- 
ust .31, 1852. 
Attorney General, Reverdy Johnson, Maryland. 

John J. Crittenden, Kentucky. From July 20, 
1850. 



•436 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 

Seventeenth Administration. 

1853-1857. 

President, Franklin Pierce, New Hampshire. 
Vice President, William R. King, Alabama. 
Cabinet: 

Secretary of State, William L. Marcy, New York. 
Secretary of Treasury, James Guthrie, Kentucky. 
Secretary of War, Jefferson Davis, Mississippi. 
Secretary of Navy, James C. Dobbin, North Carolina. 
Secretary of Interior, Robert McClellan, Michigan. 
Postmaster General, James Campbell, Pennsylvania. 
Attorney General, Caleb Cushing, Massachusetts. 



Eighteenth Administration. 

1857-1861. 

President, James Buchanan, Pennsylvania. 
Vice President, John C. Breckinridge, Kentucky. 
Cabinet : 

Secretary of State, Lewis Cass, Michigan. 

Jeremiah S. Black, Pennsylvania. From Decem- 
ber 17, 1860. 
Secretary of Treasury, Howell Cobb, Georgia. 

Philip F. Thomas, Maryland. From Decem- 
ber 12, 1860. 
John A. Dix, New York. From January 11, 
1861. 
Secretary of War, John B. Floyd, Virginia. 

Joseph Holt, Kentucky. From January 18, 1861. 
Secretary of Navy, Isaac Toucey, Connecticut. 
Secretary of Interior, Jacob Thompson, Mississippi. Resigned January 

8, 1861. 
Postmaster General, Aaron V. Brown, Tennessee, 

Joseph Holt. From March 14, 1859. 
Horatio King, Maine. From February 12, 1861. 
Attorney General, Jeremiah S. Black. 

Edwin M. Stanton, Ohio. From December 20, 1860. 



THE ADMINISTRATIONS, 437 

Nineteenth Administration. 
1861-1865. 
President, Abraham Lincoln, Illinois. 
Vice President, Hannibal Hamlin, Maine. 
Cabinet : 

Secretary of State, William H. Seward, New York. 
Secretary of Treasury, Salmon P. Chase, Ohio. 

William Pitt Fessenden, Maine. From July 1, 
1864. 
Secretary of War^ Simon Cameron, Pennsylvania. 

Edwin M. Stanton, From January 15, 1862. 
Secretary of Navy, Gideon Welles, Connecticut. 
Secretary of Interior, Caleb B. Smith, Indiana. 

John P. Usher, Indiana. From January 8, 1863. 
Postmaster General, Montgomery Blair, Maryland. 

William Dennison, Ohio. From September 24, 
1864. 
Attorney General, Edward Bates, Missouri. 

T. J. Coffey, ad interim. From June 22, 1863. 
James Speed, Kentucky. From December 2, 1864. 

Twentieth Administration. 

1865-1869. 
President, Abraham Lincoln. 

Andrew Johnson, Tennessee. From April 15, 1865. 
Vice President, Andrew Johnson. 
Cabinet : 

Secretary of State, William H. Seward. 
Secretary of Treasury, Hugh McCulloch, Indiana. 
Secretary of War, Edwin M. Stanton. 

U. S. Grant, Illinois, ad interim. From August 

12, 1867. 
Lorenzo Thomas, ad interim. From February 21, 

1868. 
John M. Schofield, New York. From May 30, 1868. 
Secretary of Navy, Gideon Welles. 
Secretary of Interior, John P. Usher. 

James Harlan, Iowa. From May 15, 1865. 
Orville H. Browning. From September 1, 1866. 
Postmaster General, William Dennison. 

Alexander W. Eandall, Wisconsin. From July 
25, 1866. 



438 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION, 

Attorney General, James Speed. 

Henry Staiibery, Kentucky. From July 23, 1866. 
William M. Evarts, New York. From July 15, 
1868. 

Twenty-First Administration. 

1869-1873. 

President, Ulysses Simpson Grant. 

Vice President, Schuyler Colfax, Indiana. 

Cabinet : 

Secretary of State, Elihu B. Washburne, Illinois. 

Hamilton Fish, New York. From March 11, 1869. 
Secretary of Treasury, George S. Boutwell, Massachusetts, 
Secretary of War, John A. Rawlins, lUhiois. 

William Tecumseh Sherman, Ohio. From Septem- 
ber 9, 1869. 
William W. Belknap, Iowa. From October 25, 1869. 
Secretary of Navy, Adolph E. Borie, Pennsylvania. 

George M. Robeson, New Jersey. From June 25, 
1869. 
Secretary of Interior, Jacob Dolson Cox, Ohio. 

Columbus Delano, Ohio. From November 1, 
1870. 
Postmaster General, John A. J. Creswell, Maryland. 
Attorney General, E. Rockwood Hoar, Massachusetts. 

Amos T. Ackerman, Georgia. From June 23, 1870. 
George H. Williams, Oregon. From December 14, 
1871. 



Twenty-Second Administration. 

1873-1877. 
President, Ulysses S. Grant. 
Vice President, Henry Wilson, Massachusetts. 
Cabinet : 

Secretary of State, Hamilton Fish. 

Secretary of Treasury, William A. Richardson, Massachusetts. 

Benjamin H. Bristow, Kentucky. From June 

4, 1874. 
Lot M. Morrill, Maine. From July 7, 1876. 



THE ADMINISTRATIONS. 439 

Secretary of War^ William W. Belknap, Iowa. 

Alphonso Taft, Ohio. From March 8, 1876. 
James D. Cameron, Pennsylvania. From May 22, 
1876. 
Secretary of Navy, George M. Robeson. 
Secretary of Interior, Columbus Delano. 

Zachariah Chandler, Michigan. From October 
19, 1875. 
Postmaster General, John A. J. Creswell. 

James W. Marshall, Virginia. From July 7, 1 874. 
Marshall Jewell, Connecticut. From August 24, 

1874. 
James N. Tyner, Indiana. From July 12, 1876. 
Attorney General, George H. Williams. 

Edwards Pierrepont, New York. From April 26, 1875. 
Alphonso Taft. From May 22, 1876. 

Twenty-Third Administration. 

1877-1881. 

President, Rutherford Birchard Hayes, Ohio. 
Vice President, William A. Wheeler, New York. 
Cabinet : 

Secretary of State, William M. Evarts. 
Secretary of Treasury, John Sherman, Ohio. 
Secretary of War, George W. McCrary, Iowa. 

Alexander Ramsey, Minnesota. From December 
10, 1879. 
Secretary of Navy, Richard W. Thompson, Indiana. 

Nathan Goff, Jr., West Virginia. From January 
6, 1881. 
Secretary of Interior, Carl Schurz, Missouri. 
Postmaster General, David McK. Key, Tennessee. 

Horace Maynard, Tennessee. From June 2, 1880. 
Attorney General^ Charles Devens, Massachusetts. 

Twenty-Fourth Administration. 

1881-1885. 

President, James Abram Garfield, Ohio. 

Chester Alan Arthur, New York. From September 22, 1881. 
Vice President, Chester Alan Arthur. 



440 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION, 

Cabinet : 

Secretary of State, James Gillespie Blaine, Maine. 

Frederick T. Frelinglmysen, New Jersey. From 
December 12, 1881. 
Secretary of Treasury, William Windom, Minnesota. 

Charles J. Folger, New York. From October 

27, 1881. 
Walter Q. Gresham, Indiana. From Septem- 
ber 24, 1884. 
Hugh McCulloch, Indiana. From October 28, 
1884. 
Secretary of War, Robert T. Lincoln, Illinois. 
Secretary of Navy, William H. Hunt, Louisiana. 

William E. Chandler, New Hampshire. From 
April 1, 1882. 
Secretary of Interior, Samuel J. Kirkwood, Iowa. 

Henry M. Teller, Colorado. From April 6, 1882. 
Postmaster General, Thomas L. James, New York. 

Timothy 0. Howe, Wisconsin. From December 

20, 1881. 
Walter Q. Gresham. From April 3, 1883. 
Frank Hatton, Iowa. From October 14, 1884. 
Attorney General, Wayne McVeagh, Pennsylvania. 

Benjamin H. Brewster, Pennsylvania. From De- 
cember 19, 1881. 

Twenty-Fifth Administration. 

1885-1889. 

The arrangement follows now the order of succession to the Presidency, as established 
by Act of Congress, January 19, 1886. 

President, Grover Cleveland, New York. 

Vice President, Thomas A. Hendricks, Indiana. 

Cabinet: 

Secretary of State, Thomas F. Bayard, Delaware. 
Secretary of Treasury, Daniel Manning, New York. 

Charles S. Fairchild, New York. From April 
1, 1887. 
Secretary of War, William C. Endicott, Massachusetts. 
Attorney General, Augustus H. Garland, Arkansas. 
Postmaster General, William F. Vilas, Wisconsin. 

Don M. Dickinson, Michigan. From January 
16, 1888. 



THE ADMINISTRATIONS. 441 

Secretary of Nav7j, William C. Whitney, New York, 
Secretary of Interior, Lucius Q. C. Lamar, Mississippi. 

William F. Vilas. From January 16, 1888. 
Secretary of Agriculture^ Norman J. Coleman, Missouri. 

Twenty-Sixth Administration. 

1889-1893. 

President, Benjamin Harrison, Indiana. 
Vice President, Levi P. Morton, New York. 
Cabinet : 

Secretary of State>, James Gillespie Blaine. 

John W. Foster, Indiana. From June 20, 1892. 
Secretary of Treasury, William Windom. 

Charles Foster, Ohio. From February 24, 1891. 
Secretary of War, Redfield Proctor, Vermont. 

Stephen B. Elkins, West Virginia. From Decem- 
ber 24, 1891. 
Attorney General, William H. H. Miller, Indiana. 
Postmaster General, John Wanamaker, Pennsylvania. 
Secretary of Navy, Benjamin F. Tracy, New York. 
Secretary of Interior, John W. Noble, Missouri. 
Secretary of Agriculture, Jeremiah M. Rusk, Wisconsin. 

Twenty-Seventh Administration. 
1893-1897. 

President, Grover Cleveland. 

Vice President, Adlai E. Stevenson, Illinois. 

Cabinet : 

Secretary of State, Walter Q. Gresham. 

Richard Olney, Massachusetts. From June 7, 
1895. 
Secretary of Treasury, John G. Carlisle, Kentucky. 
Secretary of War, Daniel S. Lamont, New York. 
Attorney (reneraZ, -Richard Olney. 

Judson Harmon, Ohio. From June 7, 1895. 
Postmaster General, Wilson S. Bissell, New York. 

William L. Wilson, West Virginia. From March 
1, 1895. 
Secretary of Navy, Hilary A. Herbert, Alabama. 



442 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 

• 
Secretary of Interior, Hoke Smith, Georgia. 

David R. Francis, Missouri, From August 22, 
1896. 
Secretary of Agriculture, Julius Sterling Morton, Nebraska. 

Twenty-Eighth Administration. 

Beginning March 4, 1897. 
President, William McKinley, Ohio. 
Vice President, Garret A. Hobart, New Jersey. 
Cabinet : 

Secretary of State, John Sherman. 

William R. Day, Ohio. From April 26, 1898. 
John Hay, Ohio. From September 30, 1898. 
Secretary of Treasury, Lyman J. Gage, Illinois. 
Secretai'y of War, Russell A. Alger, Michigan. 

Elihu Root, New York. From August 1, 1899. 
Attorney General, Joseph McKenna, California. 

John W. Griggs, New Jersey. From January 22, 1898. 
Postmaster General, James A. Gary, Maryland. 

Charles Emory Smith, Pennsylvania. From April 
21, 1898. 
Secretary of Navy, John D. Long, Massachusetts. 
Secretary of Interior, Cornelius N. Bliss, New York. 

Ethan Allen Hitchcock, Missouri. From Feb- 
ruary 20, 1899. 
Secretary of Agriculture, James Wilson, Iowa. 

Twenty-Ninth Administration. 
Beginning March 4, 1901. 
President, William McKinley. 
Vice President, Theodore Roosevelt, New York. 
Cabinet : 

Secretary of State, John Hay. 
Secretary of Treasury, Lyman J. Gage. 
Secretary of War, Elihu Root. 
Attorney General, John W. Griggs. 

Philander C. Knox, Pennsylvania. From April 9, 
1901. 
Postmaster General, Charles Emory Smith. 
Secretary of Navy, John D. Long. 
Secretary of Interior, Ethan Allen Hitchcock. 
Secretary of Agriculture, James Wilson. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 443 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

Corner stone laid of the extension of the Capitol July 4, 1851 

Commodore Perry made a treaty with Japan 1854 

Kansas-Nebraska bill passed May ol , 1854 

The Dred Scott decision in the Supreme Court March 0, 1857 

Minnesota admitted into the Union May 11, 1858 

Oregon admitted into the Union Feb. 14, 1859 

John Brown's raid on Harper's Ferry Oct. 16, 1859 

South Carolina passed an ordinance of secession Dec. 20, 1860 

Steamer Star of the West fired upon at Charleston Jan. 0, 1861 

Kansas admitted into the Union Jan. 29, 1861 

Confederacy formed at Montgomery Feb. 4, 1861 

Bombardment of Fort Sumter April 12, 13, 1861 

First blood shed in the war for the Union April 19, 1861 

Battle of Bull Run July 21, 1861 

Mason and Slidell taken from the Trent by Captain Wilkes. .Nov. 8, 1861 

Fort Henry captured by the Union army Feb. 6, 1862 

Fort Donelson captured by the Union army Feb. 16, 1862 

Fight of the Merrimac and the Monitor March 9, 1862 

Battle of Pittsburg Landing, or Shiloh April 6, 7, 1862 

Island No. 10 captured by the Union army April 7, 1862 

Capture of New Orleans by Farragut April 25, 1862 

Battle of Fair Oaks May 31, 1862 

General R. E. Lee took command of the Confederate army. .June 3, 1862 

Battle of Cedar Mountain Aug. 9, 1862 

Battle of Manassas Aug. 29, 30, 1862 

Battle of Antietam Sept. 17, 1862 

Battle of Fredericksburg Dec. 13, 1862 

Emancipation Proclamation by President Lincoln Jan. 1, 1863 

Battle of Chancellorsville May 2, 3, 1863 

West Virginia admitted into the Union June 20, 1863 

Battle of Gettysburg July 1-3, 1863 

Surrender of Vicksburg to the Union army July 4, 1863 

Battle of Chickamauga Sept. 19, 1863 

Battle of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge Nov. 24, 2o, 1863 

Battle of the AVilderness May 5, 6, 1864 

The Alabama sunk by the Kearsarge June 19, 1864 

Nevada admitted into the Union Oct. 31, 1864 

Sherman left Atlanta on his march to the seacoast Nov. 16. 1864 

Battle of Five Forks April 1. 1865 



444 DEVELORMENT OF THE UNION. 

• 

Lee's army surrendered April 0, 1865 

President Lincoln assassinated April 14, 1865 

Johnston's army surrendered April 26, 1865 

Nebraska admitted into the Union „ March 1, 1867 

Alaska bought from Russia March 30, 18^ 

Great fire in Chicago Oct. 8-10, 1871 

Centennial exhibition in Philadelphia May-Nov., 1876 

Colorado admitted into the Union Aug. 1, 1876 

Resumption of specie payments Jan. 1, 1879 

President Garfield shot July 2, 1881. Died Sept. 19, 1881 

General Grant died July 23, 1885 

North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, and Washington 

admitted into the Union Feb. 22, 1889 

Idaho admitted into the Union July 3, 1890 

Wyoming admitted into the Union July 10, 1890 

World's Columbian Exposition at Chicago May-Nov., 1893 

Exhibition at Atlanta '. 1895 

The Venezuela message 1895 

Utah admitted into the Union Jan. 4, 1896 

Election of McKinley 1896 

Dedication of Grant's tomb 1897 

Destruction of the Maine Feb. 15, 1898 

Declaration of war with Spain April 21, 1898 

Dewey destroys Spanish fleet in Manila Bay May 1, 1898 

Santiago attacked July 3, 1898 

Hawaii comes into the Union Aug. 12, 1898 

Treaty of peace with Spain Dec. 10, 1898 

Appointment of Taft Commission Feb., 1900 

McKinley inaugurated a second time March 4, 1901 



SUPPLEMENT. 



I. 



THE PREPARATION IN EUROPE FOR THE DISCOVERY 
AND OCCUPATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 

1. The World's Progress. — We began the study of our his- 
tory with the birtli of Cliristopher Columbus, whose faith and 
resolution opened the way to the discovery of the western 
world. But great events in history, though closely connected 
with the lives of particular men, are also steps in a series too 
vast to be referred only to the life of this or that man. If 
Columbus had not sailed from Palos in 1492, or Cabot from 
Bristol in 1497, yet the studies of geographers and the adven- 
tures of sailors would sooner or later have been followed by 
the discovery of the western continent. 

In tracing the development of the United States, we see with 
greater or less clearness how each epoch is dependent upon 
events which took place in a preceding generation ; and one of 
the greatest pleasures in the study of history is to discover 
how effect follows from cause. We cannot understand our 
own history unless we know something of the history of 
Europe, yes, and of Asia, before there was a white man on the 
continent of America. Every person now living as a citizen 
of the United States, with the exception of a few Indians, is 
the descendant of persons who once lived in other parts of 
the world and helped to make history elsewhere ; or he may 
himself have once been a citizen of some other nation. Per- 

445 



446 SUPPLEMENT. 

• 

haps, if we knew more, we should not make the few Indians 
exceptions. 

It is not possible, of course, to attempt to give an outline of 
the world's history before the birth of Columbus, or indeed to 
do more than touch upon a very few of the events which led 
up to the discovery of America ; but it is worth while to glance 
at the world as it was for the space of about five hundred 
years before there was any real knowledge of another great 
continent on the globe. 

2. The continent of America lies between two great oceans, 
the Atlantic and the Pacific. Thousands upon thousands of 
people cross these oceans every year, so that there are ocean 
highways, — wide belts of the sea over which the great steamers 
travel in a regular course from port to port; but there was a 
time when the oceans were undisturbed and only sea fowl 
skimmed the waters; the people living on the coasts of Asia 
and Europe had only boats and small vessels and rarely went 
out of sight of land. 

A study of the map of the world will show that the three 
continents come nearest one another at the far north. There 
are some who suppose that the Aleutian Islands were stepping 
stones by which in very early times Asiatic people made their 
way to America; and it is quite certain that the first people 
in Europe who crossed to America, and left any signs of their 
discovery, were those who lived in the far north. 

3. Voyages of the Vikings. — The coast of Norway is broken 
by long arms of the sea, called fiords,^ which stretch far 
inland and branch into lesser creeks and inlets. The moun- 
tains which cover the greater part of Norway, end sharply by 
the side of these waters; and in sheltered coves, the vikings,^ 
so called from the Norse word vik, which means a creek, kept 
their vessels. These were long boats driven partly by sails 
and partly by oars; and out of the mountain fastnesses the 
vikings would issue forth to plunder by sea and by land. 

1 The word fiord is the same as " firth " or " frith " in Scotland. 

2 The word has nothing to do with " kings." 



THE PliE PA RATION IN EUROPE. 



44' 



When they returned to their mountain homes and gathered 
about their hall fires, and sat at their feasts, some of their 
number would sing the wonderful deeds of the vikings. These 
singers were called skalds, and the songs and stories which 
they sang and told were called sagas. The sagas were re- 
peated by one and another and handed down from one gen- 




A Ship of the Vikings. 

eration to the next. At last they were written down; and it 
is from these sagas that we learn something of the early his- 
tory of the ancestors of the Norwegians, Swedes,' and Danes. 

In the ninth century after Christ, the hardy Norsemen found 
Iceland, when their vessels were blown across to it by fierce 
winds; later, by a like chance, they came upon Greenland. 
They occupied Iceland, and made a few settlements in Green- 
land. In the sagas there is mention of voyages still farther 



448 SUPPLEMENT. 

away to Vinland, and there is little doubt tliat about tlie year 
1000 these Norsemen made landings upon the northern coast 
of North America; but they made no permanent settlement 
and left no certain trace of occupation. 

The Norsemen were bold sailors. It has been pointed out ^ 
that they made two great inventions which rendered long 
voyages possible : the keel, whereas Koman and other ancient 
vessels were flat-bottomed and could go only with the^wind ; 
and the cask for holding water, whereas southern nations 
depended on leather bottles or earthenware jars, which could 
carry but small supplies. Yet bold as were these northern 
mariners, they had little to do with southern Europe, except 
in a piratical way, and it is almost certain tliat Vinland was 
wholly unknown to geographers, who were busy in the time 
of Columbus with their speculations about the world beyond 
the Atlantic. 

4. The Crusades. — When the vikings were making these 
voyages, there was very little travel from one part of Europe 
to another. There Avere no large kingdoms, but the country 
was ruled over by a great number of kings, princes, dukes, 
counts, and petty lords, who were fighting continually with 
one another. The great bond of union for all these peoples 
was the Church, whose head was the Pope of Kome ; and the 
Church, about a hundred years after the Norsemen made 
voyages to Vinland, set in motion a popular enterprise which 
failed of its direct object, yet brought about a wonderful 
change in Europe. 

It had long been the custom for pious men to make pil- 
grimages to Jerusalem, but they did it at the peril of their 
lives, for the Mohammedans held Jerusalem, and illtreated 
the pilgrims. A zealous preacher, called Peter the Hermit, 
encouraged by the Pope, went up and down calling for volun- 
teers to go to Jerusalem and rescue the holy places 
there, especially the Sepulcher of Christ. Thus 
began the crusades, and for nearly two hundred years great 

1 By N. S. Shaler in Nature and Man in America. 



THE PREPARATION IN EUROPE, 449 

bands of men and even children from all parts of Europe were 
bent on this conquest of Jerusalem. They met with some 
successes, but with terrible disasters also, and in the end 
were obliged to leave Jerusalem still in the hands of the 
Mohammedans. 

Such a movement of peoples could not help breaking up 
many old ways. Men who had never been outside of the 
village in which they were born now traveled over many 
countries, and some came back to tell of what they had seen. 
Travel sets intelligent people thinking, and new ideas sprang 
up. Besides, these armies of men needed to be transported, 
and the most natural way to reach Jerusalem was by vessel 
from some Italian port ; such cities as Genoa and Venice be- 
came very active, and commerce everywhere was increased. 
Money was needed, and towns which had been wholly in the 
power of petty princes bought their freedom from these princes, 
who wanted money to pay their soldiers with when they set 
out for Jerusalem; and finally, cities were leagued together 
to resist the tyranny of kings. Thus slowly the people were 
acquiring ideas of independence. The Church, moreover, grew 
more powerful, for the crusades were carried on at its call. 

5. The Revival of Learning. — The Mohammedans had their 
origin in Arabia and for a long time were confined to Asia, 
the northern part of Africa, and the southern part of Spain, 
where they were known as Moors. But in the middle of the 
fifteenth century, one great section of Mohammedans, the 
Turks, as we have seen, pushed their armies into eastern 
Europe and took possession of Constantinople, which 
was then the stronghold of Greek scholars. As a 
consequence, learned men fled from the city and made their 
way to Italy, France, and England; they established them- 
selves in the universities, and brought their stores of Greek 
learning and literature to the knowledge of the west. It was 
like the opening of a new world to the eyes of Italy, France, 
and England, and an enormous curiosity was awakened. 

We call the period the Renaissance, or the New Birth, for 
2g 



i^jO S UPPLEMEN T. 

• 

it was the beginning of a new life in Europe. Scholars were 
eagerly asking what had happened and what had been written 
centuries before in Greece and Kome. They were busy, too, 
with questions about the world in which they lived, — how 
large it was, and what was its shape. They asked the mer- 
chants who traveled into Asia, and the sailors who coasted 
along Africa, about the countries they had seen ; and they 
wrote books from these accounts, and made maps, and tried to 




A Monk writing a Book. 

reckon how far it was on the ocean from the west of Europe to 
the east of Asia. The art of printing had just been invented/ 
and since books could now be made more easily and rapidly 
than when each was slowly written out with pen and ink, 
there were more people eager to learn to read and write ; the 

1 The first printing from movable type appears to have been done in the 
years between 1440 and 1450. The first types were copied from the manu- 
script letters which the monks and other skillful copyists made ; so that it is 
often difficult to tell in the early books whether they were printed or were 
written by hand with pen and ink. 



THE PBEPARATION IN EUROPE. 45 i 

lew knowledge wliicli men had was spread more widely, and 
tlie more people knew, tlie more they wished to know. 

6. Travelers and Explorers At this time Spain was the 

most powerful kingdom in Europe, and Portugal, with its long 
strip of seacoast, was famous for its sailors and adventurers. 
The two countries formed together a great peninsula, which 
looked on one side upon the Mediterranean Sea, on the other 
upon the Atlantic Ocean. The Atlantic is now in the middle 
of the civilized world, and the greatest number of ships sail 
upon its waters; but in those days, the middle sea was the 
Mediterranean, and the greatest trade was carried on in ships 
which sailed from the peninsular ports, and from Genoa and 
Venice. 

These vessels sailed to Alexandria and other eastern ports, 
where they found the rich goods of Asia which had been 
brought by caravans from countries as far away as India, 
China, and even Japan. Now and then a traveler from Europe 
would make his way to those distant lands, and bring back 
reports of them. But as the Turks and Moors controlled the 
eastern and southern coasts of the Mediterranean, these trad- 
ing voyages were perilous affairs, and it looked as if European 
merchants might be shut off from Asia altogether. 

It became very desirable to reach the eastern parts of Asia 
by some other route, and the most reasonable was that 
which followed the coast lying to the south and Avest of the 
Strait of Gibraltar. The Canary Islands, indeed, had long 
been known. They had been found somewhat as 
Iceland had been found by the Norsemen; vessels 
had been blown across to them from the European coast. 

Then, too, vessels sent to explore the coast of Africa had 
been driven out of their course by storms, and had discovered 
the Madeira Islands. Little by little, adventurous 
captains coasted farther and farther, until the Cape 
Verde Islands were found ; then the Gold Coast, the island 
of Fernando Po, the river Congo, and at last, in 1487, the 
Cape of Good Hope. It took seventy years of exploration 



452 



SUPPLEMENT. 



to trace the African 
coast line of six thousand 
miles from Cape Nun^ 
(which for centuries had 
been the extreme point 
of western Africa known 
to Europeans) to the 
Cape of Good Hope. 

7. Motives for Discov- 
ery. — Every kingdom 
or city which sought to 
get rich by trading with 



a distant country believed that 
it must keep away all other 
traders. It took care not to 
give others the knowledge which 
it miffht obtain of new routes 



1 Cape Nun means Cape Not. The 
Portuguese had a proverb, "He who 
would pass Cape Not either will return 
or not"; for they thought that if he 
did not return before passing the cape, 
he never would return at all. 




L. from 10 Greenwicli 



THE PREPARATION IN EUROPE. 453 

or of hitherto unknown lands. When a new country or island 
was discovered, the captain who discovered it took possession 
in the name of his king or queen. Forts were built at the 
trading posts which were established. Every vessel went 
armed, and many were the fights at sea between vessels sailing 
from different kingdoms. 

The captains who sailed the ships needed to know many 
things. They were soldiers, for they had often to fight. They 
were learned men, f^r they had instruments and charts, though 
these were rude and inexact compared with what we now have ; 
and they were constantly obliged to use their own knowledge 
and skill in order to navigate their vessels. They were 
merchants also, trading with the natives of the various new 
countries which they visited. It was a common thing for a 
merchant to build his own ship, command it on a voyage, and 
buy and sell his cargo ; and many grew rich in such enterprises. 

In Spain and Portugal, even more than in England and 
France, wealth was sought, not so much by tilling the ground 
and by the useful arts, as by searching for it in distant coun- 
tries, and especially by finding gold and silver mines. Gold 
had become very scarce, and men looked for it in every direc- 
tion. It was not riches alone that drew men upon these ad- 
ventures ; there were some who liked the excitement of discovery 
and travel ; others wished to know more about the world in 
which they lived, and to bring back reports to the men who 
made maps and books. It was a time, too, when there was 
great zeal to c xtend the power of the Church. Missionaries 
were busy in all lands; and the captains and merchants were 
very often eager to add to the number of those who should be 
baptized into the Christian Church. 

8. The Spanish Contribution. — It was under the influence 
of such motives that Columbus and the other early voyagers 
of the Peninsula acted. At this time, moreover, Spain was 
flushed with success. The kingdoms of Aragon and Castile 
had been united by the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella, 
and the two had together conquered the Moorish kingdom of 



454 SUPPLEMENT. 

Granada. By the expulsion of the Moors, Spain became a 
great and powerful kingdom with important harbors on the 
Mediterranean coast. 

For a little more than half a century America received the 
overflow of Spanish energy. The Spaniards were making 
their influence felt in other parts of Europe, especially in the 
Netherlands ; but there were two powerful streams flowing 
toward America, — the gentlemen of Spain, who had fought 
in her wars and had no disposition to stay idly at home, but 
were fired to conquer provinces in the New World, and acquire 
great estates there; and the restless poor, who wished to 
escape the hardship of their lot in Spain and eagerly listened 
to the proposals of Las Casas,^ who was forming Spanish 
colonies in America. 

But by the end of the half century after the discovery of 
America, Spain was becoming involved in the co .est for 
supremacy in Europe, and she left her Americ: colonies 
largely to themselves. The events which were taking place in 
Europe after Charles V. of Spain resigned his crown in 1560, 
withdrew for a time the attention which Europe had been 
giving to America, but they led ultimately to new activity in 
the migration of Europeans across the Atlantic. 

9. The Religious Revolutionc in Europe. — We have seen in 
our history how the successive wars in Europe changed the 
map of Europe;; how Spain lost her supremacy, and France, 
Hollandj and England became more powerful. It is not pos- 
sible in thic bri f space to pomt out how these wars involved 
changes in religious belief, but these changes made political 
parties, both in France and England, and in the conflict 
between these parties America was strongly affected. 

The English Puritans. — It is only needful to remind the 
reader of the great exodus of Englishmen to America between 
the years 1630 and 1640, when, both on political and religious 
grounds, some of the best blood of England was emigrating to 

1 A zealous priest who was deeply concerned for the unbaptized natives of 
the New World. 



THE PREPARATION IN EUROPE. 455 

America, there to found English institutions in Virginia and 
New England. The disturbed state of England impelled them 
to make their ventures. 

The French Huguenots. — A smaller number of men, but men 
of a very high order of character, were driven to America from 
France by the religious war in that kingdom. The Protestant 
revolution wliich resulted in Lutheranism in Germany, was fol- 
lowed in France by the rise of the Huguenots; and when, in 
1685, the protection which had been afforded these was with- 
drawn by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes,^ great num- 
bers left France. It is said that at least a quarter of a million 
emigrated to England and other countries where they could 
find refuge. They were for the most part skilled artisans and 
people of great intelligence. Many came direct to America; 
many also came by way of England, and the American people 
was enriched by a very noble strain of blood. 

The Scotch-Irish Protestants. — Again in the Protestant revo- 
lution of 1689 in England, Scotland, and Ireland, the disorders 
and the change of ownership of land drove out of the country 
a large number of the sturdy yeomanry of Scotland and Ire- 
land, and very many found their way to the Atlantic colonies, 
especially the middle and southern colonies. From this stock, 
as the reader of our history has seen, came many of our most 
prominent leaders in state. 

10. Economic Changes in Europe. — It is not possible to sepa- 
rate, except in a general way, the political, the religious, and 
the economical movements in Europe which had their influence 
upon America, and prepared the way for the occupation of 
this continent. When Sir Humphrey G-ilbert and his half- 
brother. Sir Walter Raleigh, in 1583 and 1584, were planning 
colonies in America, they were moved as statesmen who 

1 When Henri IV. came to the throne of France, he was a Protestant, but 
he passed over into the Roman Catholic Chui-ch. He secured the rights of the 
Huguenots among his subjects by the edict issued at Nantes in 1598. Henri 
was assassinated in 1610, and those who were bitterly opposed to the Hugue- 
nots came into power. 



456 SUPPLEMENT. 

desired to find relief for the swarm of poor and idle people in 
England. When Virginia was first settled, it offered a chance 
for men out of employment. When the Pilgrims and Puritans 
came over, they were by no means actuated solely by religious 
and political motives ; they wished to find occupation and a 
livelihood for their poorer members. 

Now the wars which prevailed so long in Europe were con- 
stantly compelling laboring men to seek other lands, and the 
laws passed by one nation were often made for the purpose of 
keeping out the goods of other nations; the commercial laws, 
as we have more than once seen in our history, were short- 
sighted efforts to compel other countries to pay for the privi- 
lege of trading with the country which passed these laws. It 
would be impossible to analyze here the great changes which 
from the sixteenth to the nineteenth century were passing 
over Europe and breaking up the old order of things. Those 
changes are still going on, and during all this time America 
has been the gainer, for every great disturbance in European 
life has driven multitudes to these shores. 

11. Interdependence. — We long ago achieved our independ- 
ence. We have made more solid our union. But each new 
generation sees more clearly that though Europe by its changes 
was making ready for the occupation of America, the time has 
come when America and Europe each need the other. We 
are learning the meaning of that longer and greater word, 
Interdependence. 




,.5^' united ^ ^ , 



^ I F I G 



100 Longitude 90 West 



iJ. 



THE PHYSICAL PREPARATION OF NORTH AMERICA FOR 
OCCUPATION BY EUROPEAN PEOPLE. 

12. The Waiting Continent. — We have given a rapid glance 
at those movements in Europe which prepared the way for 
the discovery and occupation of North America. Let us now 
turn to that continent which had been for ages lying midway 
between the western coast of Europe and the eastern coast of 
Asia, and see what sort of a land was waiting thus to receive 
the impress of European human life. We will not attempt 
in this brief space to trace the building of the continent from 
early geologic time, but look at it as it lies under the sky at 
the end of the fifteenth century.^ 

13. The Boundaries of the United States. — A study of the 
map will show that the boundaries of the United States are 
to a very great extent natural. On the east, the Atlantic 
Ocean separates it from all other lands. On the south, the 
Gulf of Mexico is a like boundary. Then the Eio Grande, 
flowing for a long distance along the base of a mountainous 
range, marks the separation from Mexico, until it reaches a 
point between the thirty-first and thirty-second degrees of 
north latitude, when a surveyor's line cuts across the Sierra 
Madre and other mountain ranges to the Pacific Ocean. That 
ocean forms the western boundary to the extremity of the 

1 If any one desires to study the growth of the continental mass from the 
detached islands of early geologic time, he will find it set forth simply and 
clearly in N. S. Shaler's The Storij of Our Continent, to the final chapters of 
which, as well as to other writings by the same author, I am indebted for the 
outline contained in this sketch. 

457 



458 SUPPLEMENT. 

» 

Aleutian Islands and Bering Strait; but a surveyor's line 
again marks the separation of the Alaskan territory from tlie 
Dominion of Canada, and cuts across the continent from the 
Pacific Ocean to the Lake of the Woods, forming the boundary 
line separating the United States from its northern neighbor, 
Canada. At the Lake of the Woods another great series of 
natural boundary lines of lake and river continues to the 
Atlantic, save for a comparatively short distance at the eastern 
extremity. 

14. The Location of the Country. — Thus the United States is 
for the most part framed by nature, and within this frame is 
a great diversity of land and water, and a great range of 
temperature and climate, making possible the greatest variety 
of modes of life and occupation. Except the Alaskan terri- 
tory, the United States lies wholly in the north temperate zone, 
and in the lower middle portion of that zone, so that it escapes 
the extremes of cold and heat and occupies that part of the 
globe which has been found capable of furnishing the plant 
and animal life on which man most relies for his food, and lies 
between those parallels of latitude where man has exercised 
his greatest energy in developing his powers in civilization. 

15. The Great Geographical Divisions. — There are five factors 
which enter into the physical formation of the United States : 
the coast line, the mountains, the rivers, the lakes, and the 
plains. By taking each in turn, we can analyze roughly the 
several forces which have determined the settlement ^and are 
now affecting the -development of the nation. 

The Coast Line. — Inasmuch as the first settlers came from 
Europe, the character of the Atlantic coast had an important 
influence on their choice of settlements, and to a certain extent 
on their occupations. Erora the Gulf of St. Lawrence to 
Chesapeake Bay there is a succession of excellent harbors. 
Moreover, in the northeastern portion especially, there are 
great shoals, which make feeding grounds for fish. It was this 
fact, it will be remembered, that drew to these shores the 
hardy fishermen of France and England. The same cause 



PHYSICAL PREPARATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 459 

has developed great fishing industries on the coast. In conse- 
quence of the advantages offered by the harbors and the fishing 
grounds, there was from tlie earliest settlement a development 
of maritime occupations in this part of the country. 

From Chesapeake Bay to the Rio Grande, the harbors are 
less frequent and more blocked by sand bars, so that though by 
dredging and by building jetties these difficulties have in. part 
been overcome, there has been a less marked development of 
maritime occupation. Yet this long line of coast with its har- 
bors, and the fact that in early days communication by land 
was difficult and tedious, have had much to do with the union 
of the different parts of the country; for a great coastwise 
trade has flourished from the earliest times of our history. 

When we pass to the Pacific coast, and move northward, 
we observe that the harbors are unimportant until we come to 
San Francisco, Avhich is on one of the finest harbors in the world ; 
but the close proximity of great mountain ranges makes this 
absence of harbors of less importance, for there is no rich 
producing country behind the coast, as on the Atlantic, to give 
rise to wide commerce. When we reach Oregon, the harbors 
again become an important feature ; in Puget Sound we have 
what is destined to be one of the great ports of the globe, a 
landlocked sea which could hold in safety all the navies of 
all nations, and is the depot of what will become a vast sup- 
jdying country. Northward, the innumerable harbors on the 
Alaskan coast await the coming development of the mineral 
resources of that land. 

The Mountains. — The eye quickly detects on the map three 
distinct systems of mountains, running in a general north and 
south direction, — the Appalachian range parallel with the At- 
lantic coast, the Sierra Nevadas with the Coast range hugging 
the Pacific shore, and the Rocky Mountains farther to the 
east. Strictly speaking, these last two ranges should be 
reckoned as one great mountainous system, the Cordilleras; 
but for our consideration of their effect on American life, it is 
better to regard them as two. 



460 SUPPLEMENT. 

The Appalachian range long served as a great barrier to the 
Atlantic colonies. It marked off thus a strip of country to 
which the English colonies were confined until they had laid 
the foundations of the new nation. It furnished also the 
sources for the many rivers which intersected the country 
occupied by the early settlers. The great forests on the slopes 
were sponges which held the moisture and permitted the rivers 
to flow with a certain evenness. The climate thus was favor- 
ably affected, and the conditions were good for agricultural 
activity. It was also of much consequence that this great 
range should have enormous deposits of coal and iron, and 
should furnish building stone and clays for pottery. 

It is not easy to see on a map of the small scale of ours one 
notable feature of this range, — the great table-lands which 
border much of the system. The greater part of the States of 
New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia, the Caro- 
linas, Georgia, Tennessee, Kentucky, and Ohio lies upon the 
table-land, and these States enjoy thereby not only a great 
range of climate, but conditions which render them most 
serviceable for the uses of man.^ 

The Rocky Mountains long formed another barrier to the 
westward movement of population. Indeed it was not till 
the Pacific coast had become suddenly important by the dis- 
covery of gold there, that these mountains were overcome. 
The great height and width of the range have a marked effect 
upon the climate of the region to the east of it. Whatever 
moisture the winds of the Pacific carry is lost in crossing the 
Sierra Nevadas, and thus they have become dry currents when 
they pass over the plains lying to the east of the Rocky 
Mountains. 

The Coast range is too low wholly to obstruct the moisture 
from the Pacific, and thus the slopes and valleys lying to the 
west of the Sierra Nevadas are fertile,' and the climate is 
delightful. For these reasons that region may be regarded 

1 See the "Physiography of North America," by N. S. Shaler, in Wiusor's 
Narrative and Critical History, Vol. IV. 



PHYSICAL PREPARATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 461 

as affording opportunity for abundant human life, second only 
to what is offered by the Appalachian range. The entire 
region of the Cordilleras, though dry and sterile, is rich in 
mineral deposits, especially abounding in the precious 
metals. 

The Rivers. — So far as the river system is connected with 
the mountain system, there is a marked difference between the 
Appalachian range and the Cordilleras. The former is not 
only the source of many large streams, both on the eastern and 
western slopes, but is even cut through in one or two instances 
by rivers. All this section of the country is thus a moist 
region, and the average rainfall is much higher than in Europe. 

On the Pacific slope the rivers are few in number, the most 
important being the Yukon, which flows into Bering Sea, the 
Columbia, which bisects the Cascade range in Oregon, and the 
Colorado, which discharges into the bay of Lower California.^ 
The mountain region, out of which the Colorado proceeds, is 
so rainless that no great river valleys have been formed. 

But the great river system is the central Mississippi system 
with its tributaries; though it might be more exact to call 
this the Missouri system, since before the junction of the two 
streams the Missouri River has the largest volume and receives 
the largest number of contributing streams, watering the 
greater area. The only system in the world comparable with 
the Mississippi is the Amazon; but the Amazon, flowing as it 
does from west to east in one great zone, the tropic, does not 
so contribute to the welfare of mankind as the Mississippi, 
which, flowing from north to south, crosses regions greatly 
varying in temperature and rainfall. 

The vast extent of navigable waters in this system has 

1 " It is probable that no other river in the world, except the Nile, flows so 
far without being joined by streams from the neighboring country. Like the 
Nile, the Colorado flows through a desert, though the desert which borders 
the Colorado, unlike that which borders the lower Nile, is very elevated ; it 
lies at a height of about five thousand feet above the sea. Through this table- 
land the stream has cut a deep gorge, or canon, the most wonderful narrow 
valley in the world." — Shaler's The Storij of Our Continent. 



462 SUPPLEMENT. 

had a powerful influence upon the movement of population. 
Scarcely had the pioneers crossed the Appalachian range than 
they found themselves able to make use of streams upon which 
they could float in comparative security into the heart of the 
continent. We have seen how the French and Spaniards early 
sought, by means of the Mississippi, to control the great 
thoroughfare of the New World; later, the possession of it 
was held by the Western pioneers almost a reason for separat- 
ing from the Eastern States ; and in the war for the Union, the 
control of it by the Union forces was the sign of the approach- 
ing downfall of the Confederacy. 

The Forests. — Although our map does not indicate the 
forest lands, these bear so intimate a relation to the rivers, 
and they have had, and still have, so great an influence on the 
civilization of the land, that, as natural features of the coun- 
try, they demand a few words. When the first settlers began 
to occupy the region now covered by the United States, they 
found pretty much all the country lying east and south of a 
line drawn from the Gulf of Mexico due north to the Ozark 
Mountains, then running easterly by the Ohio to Lake Erie, 
and so by the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence to the sea, 
covered with a vast forest. In a few areas the Indians had 
burned the forests, but the destruction of them since that day 
has been by the settlers who have cleared them for farms and 
grazing lands. 

On the Pacific coast, the surface covered by trees is that of 
the Coast range of mountains and its neighboring table-land, a 
belt which widens greatly as it extends northward. The 
growth in this region is most majestic, and if properly guarded 
will long remain the source of some of the finest wood in the 
world ; but under the action of unregulated commercial com- 
petition, these noble forests are rapidly disappearing. The 
forests of America have been, and still are, great sources of 
wealth to the people, but both in the East and the West, the 
wholesale destruction of them not only is attended by enor- 
mous waste but has a very material effect upon agriculture and 



PHYSICAL PREPARATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 463 

mill privileges by diminisliing the rainfall and impairing the 
regularity of the streams.^ 

The Lakes. — The scale of our map is too small to permit 
enumeration of a great number of lakes which diversify the 
landscape and furnish water power; but the eye at once ob- 
serves the chain of Great Lakes, and the isolated Salt Lake in 
the Cordilleras. The Great Lakes have a marked influence 
upon the climate and soil lying to the south of them, and the 
wealth under the soil, especially in copper and phosphates, is 
very great. The lakes themselves afford a succession of inland 
seas which are like a northern ocean to all the country east of 
the Mississippi Valley, so that not only is commerce carried on 
with the country of Canada, lying on the other side of this 
northern ocean, but a great coastwise trade has grown up, not 
unlike that which for nearly three hundred years has charac- 
terized the States lying along the Atlantic Ocean. 

The Plains. — The word "desert," which occurs on the 

map between the Sierra Nevadas and the Eocky Mountains, 

indicates a general condition of the plains that lie in this 

region; not that this district is throughout actually sterile, 

but as has been seen the absence of rain renders it arid, 

and artificial irrigation must largely be relied upon to make 

the country fertile. How great the results may be are 

intimated by what we have already found in the history of 

Utah. But between the two great systems of the Cordilleras 

and the Appalachian Mountains there exists, save for an 

arid belt flanking the Cordilleras, and a few isolated 

mountain districts like the Ozarks and the Black Hills, 

a vast territory, practically plain, well watered, accessible, 

and enjoying a great diversity of climate. This is the great 

farm land of the nation. Once it was far more covered with 

woods than now ; but first the Indian burned away the woods 

1 The increasing demand for wood in manufacture for other purposes than 
formerly has a distinct effect upon the supply. For instance, much of the 
paper used in newspapers is made from wood pulp, and it is said that for every 
edition of a certain large Sunday newspaper, ten acres of spruce trees, large 
and small, are cut down. 



464 



SUPPLEMENT. 




to make grazing ground 
for the buffalo, and 
later the white man 
also cut down the trees 
which stood in the way 
of his farm and town. 
Much of this removal 
of wood took place be- 



and there awaited him, 
upon which now grows 



fore the coming of the white man, 

therefore, the rich, arable prairie, 

the grain not only for the people of the United States but for 

those of Europe as well. 



PHYSICAL PREPARATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 465 

16. The Making Over of the Land. — Thus, by a rapid survey, 
we have seen how the country now possessed by the United 
States was made ready in the great process of nature for 
the occupation of the people of the Old World, and their 
descendants. The change of the face of the country is a 
part of the historical growth of the nation. By the opera- 
tion of human activity, changes are slowly taking place. 
Harbors are dredged ; mountains are tunneled and laid open 
for their treasures ; river channels are deepened; great sys- 
tems of canals connect inland lakes with each other and 
with the sea; and by the planting, as well as by the destruc- 
tion of forests, great changes are making in rainfall and 
climate. Much of this work is done by private enterprise, 
but a great part also by government. Both state and federal 
governments have it in their power to do much toward mak- 
ing the land not only habitable but more beautiful; and it is 
a matter for congratulation that of late years so many public 
measures have been taken to preserve to the people forever 
such great parks and playgrounds as Niagara Falls, the 
Adirondacks, the Yellowstone Park and the Yosemite Valley. 



2h 



APPENDIX. 



A. FOUE HISTOKIOAL DOCUMENTS. 



THE COMPACT OF THE PILGRIM FATHERS. 

In the name of God, Amen. We, whose names are underwritten, 
the loyal subjects of our dread Sovereign Lord, King James ; by the 
grace of (iod, of Great Britain, France, and Ireland King ; Defender 
of the Faith, etc. 

Having undertaken for the glory of God, and advancement of the 
Christian faith, and honor of our King and country, a Voyage to 
plant the first Colony in the northern parts of Virginia ; do, by these 
presents, solemnly and mutually, in the presence of God, and one of 
another, covenant and combine ourselves together into a Civil Body 
Politic, for our better ordering and preservation ; and furtherance of 
the end aforesaid; and, by virtue hereof, to enact, constitute, and 
frame such just and equal laws, ordinance, acts, constitutions, offices, 
from time to time, as shall be thought most meet and convenient for 
the general good of the Colony ; into which, we promise all due sub- 
mission and obedience. 

In witness whereof, we have hereunder, subscribed our names, Cape 
Cod, 11th of November, in the year of the reign of our Sovereign 
Lord King James, of England, France, and Ireland 18 ; and of Scot- 
land 54. Anno Domini 1620. 

II. 

THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 

Declaration by the Representatives of the United States 
OF America in Congress assembled, July 4, 1776. 

When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for 
one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected 

467 



468 APPENDIX. 

them with another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, 
the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of 
nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of man- 
kind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them 
to the separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created 
equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalien- 
able rights; that among these, are life, liberty, and the pursuit of 
happiness. That, to secure these rights, governments are instituted 
among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the gov- 
erned; that, whenever any form of government becomes destructive 
of these ends, it is the right of the people to . alter or to abolish it, 
and to institute a new government, laying its foundation on such 
principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall 
seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, 
indeed, will dictate that governments long established, should not 
be changed for light and transient causes ; and, accordingly, all 
experience hath shown, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, 
while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing 
the forms to which they are accustomed. But, when a long train 
of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, 
evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is 
their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to 
provide new guards for their future security. Such has been the 
patient sufferance of these colonies, and such is now the necessity 
which constrains them to alter their former systems of government. 
The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of 
repeated injuries and usurpations, all having, in direct object, the 
establishment of an absolute tyranny over these States. To prove 
this, let facts be submitted to a candid world; — 

He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and neces- 
sary for the public good. 

He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and 
pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his 
assent should be obtained; and, when so suspended, he has utterly 
neglected to attend to them. 

He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large 
districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of 
representation in the legislature: a right inestimable to them, and 
formidable to tyrants only. 



THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 469 

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncom- 
fortable, and distant from the depository of their public records, 
for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his 
measures. 

He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, 
with manly firnniess, his invasions on the rights of the people. 

He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause 
others to be elected ; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of 
annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise ; 
the state remaining, in the meantime, exposed to all the danger of 
invasion from without, and convulsions within. 

He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States ; for 
that purpose, obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreigners, 
refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and rais- 
ing the conditions of new appropriations of lands. 

He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his 
assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. 

He has made judges dependent on his will alone, for the tenure of 
their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. 

He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms 
of officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance. 

He has kept among us, in time of peace, standing armies, without 
the consent of our legislatures. 

He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior 
to, the civil power. 

He has combined, with others, to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign 
to our Constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws ; giving his 
assent to their acts of pretended legislation : 

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us : 

For protecting them by a mock trial, from punishment, for any 
murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these 
States : 

For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world : 

For imposing taxes on us without our consent : 

For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefit of trial by jury : 

For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended offences : 

For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring 
province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging 
its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and fit instru- 
ment for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies : 



470 APPENDIX. 

For taking away our charters, abolishing our most vahiable laws, 
and altering, fundamentally, the powers of our governments : 

For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves in- 
vested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 

He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his pro- 
tection, and waging war against us. 

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, 
and destroyed the lives of our people. 

He is, at this time, transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries 
to complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun, 
with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the 
most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. 

He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high 
seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners 
of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. 

He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has en- 
deavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless 
Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished 
destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. 

In every stage of these oppressions, we have petitioned for redress, 
in the most humble terms : our repeated petitions have been answered 
only by repeated injury. A prince, whose character is thus marked 
by every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a 
free people. 

Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British brethren. 
We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts made by their 
legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have 
reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement 
here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and 
we have conjured them, by the ties of our common kindred, to dis- 
avow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our con- 
nections and correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice 
of justice and consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the 
necessity which denounces our separation, and hold them, as we hold 
the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace, friends. 

We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, 
in general Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the 
world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name, and by the 
authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and 
declare, that these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free 



TEE ORDINANCE OF 1787. 471 

and independent states : that they are absolved from all allegiance to 
the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and 
the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved ; and 
that, as free and independent states, they have full power to levy war, 
conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all 
other acts and things which independent states may of right do. 
And, for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the 
protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our 
lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. 

The foregoing Declaration was, by order of Congress, engrossed, 
and signed by the following members : — 

John Hancock. 

New Hampshire. — Josiah Bartlett, William Whipple, Matthew 
Thornton. Massachusetts Bay. — Samuel Adams, John Adams, Rob- 
ert Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry. Rhode Island. — Stephen Hopkins, 
William Ellery. Connecticut. — Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, 
William Williams, Oliver Wolcott. New York. — William Floyd, 
Philip Livingstone, Francis Lewis, Lewis Morris. New Jersey. — 
Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John 
Hart, Abraham Clark. Pennsylvania. — Robert Morris, Benjamin 
Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, James 
Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross. Delaware. — 
Caesar Rodney, George Read, Thomas M'Kean. Maryland. — Samuel 
Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, Charles Carroll of Carrollton. 
Virginia. — George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, 
Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter 
Braxton. North Carolina. — William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn. 
South Carolina. — Edward Rutledge, Thomas Heyward, Jr., Thomas 
Lynch, Jr., Arthur Middleton. Georgia. — Button Gwinnett, Lyman 
Hall, George Walton. 

III. 

THE ORDINANCE OF 1787. 

An Ordinance for the Government of the Territory of 
THE United States Northwest of the River Ohio. 

Be it ordained by the United States in Congress assembled, That the 
said territory, for the purposes of temporary government, be one dis- 



472 APPENDIX. 

• 
trict, subject, however, to be divided into two districts, as future cir- 
cumstances may, in the opinion of Congress, make it expedient. 

Be it ordained by the authority aforesaid, That the estates, both of 
resident and non-resident proprietors in the said territory, dying intes- 
tate, shall descend to, and be distributed among, their children, and 
the descendants of a deceased child, in equal parts ; the descendants 
of a deceased child or grandchild to take the share of their deceased 
parent in equal parts among them : And where there shall be no 
children or descendants, then in equal parts to the next of kin in 
equal degree ; and, among collaterals, the children of a deceased 
brother or sister of the intestate shall have, in equal parts among 
them, their deceased parents' share ; and there shall, in no case, be a 
distinction between kindred of the whole and half-blood; saving, in 
all cases, to the widow of the intestate her third part of the real estate 
for life, and one-third part of the personal estate ; and this law, rela- 
tive to descents and dower, shall remain in full force until altered by 
the legislature of the district. And, until the governor and judges 
shall adopt laws as hereinafter mentioned, estates in the said territory 
may be devised or bequeathed by wills in writing, signed and sealed 
by him or her, in whom the estate may be (being of full age,) and 
attested by three witnesses ; and real estates may be conveyed by 
lease and release, or bargain and sale, signed, sealed, and delivered by 
the person, being of full age, in whom the estate may be, and attested 
by two witnesses, provided such wills be duly proved, and such con- 
veyances be acknowledged, or the execution thereof duly proved, and 
be recorded within one year after proper magistrates, courts, and regis- 
ters shall be appointed for that purpose ; and personal property may 
be transferred by delivery; saving, however, to the French and Cana- 
dian inhabitants, and other settlers of the Kaskaskias, St. Vincents, 
and the neighboring villages who have heretofore professed them- 
selves citizens of Virginia, their laws and custom now in force among 
them, relative to the descent and conveyance of property. 

Be it ordained by the authority aforesaid, That there shall be ap- 
pointed, from time to time, by Congress, a governor, whose commis- 
sion shall continue in force for the term of three years, unless sooner 
revoked by Congress ; he shall reside in the district, and have a free- 
hold estate therein in 1000 acres of land, while in the exercise of his 
office. 

There shall be appointed, from time to time, by Congress, a secre- 
tary, whose commission shall continue in force for four years unless 



THE ORDINANCE OF 1787. 473 

sooner revoked ; he shall reside in the district, and have a freehold 
estate therein in 500 acres of land, while in the exercise of his office ; 
it shall be his duty to keep and preserve the acts and laws passed by 
the legislature, and the public records of the district, and the pro- 
ceedings of the governor in his Executive department; and transmit 
authentic copies of such acts and proceedings, every six months, to 
the Secretary of Congress : There shall also be appointed a court to 
consist of three judges, any two of whom to form a court, who shall 
have a common law jurisdiction, and reside in the district, and have 
each therein a freehold estate in 500 acres of land while in the exer- 
cise of their offices ; and their commissions shall continue in force 
during good behavior. 

The governor and judges, or a majority of them, shall adopt and 
publish in the district such laws of the original States, criminal and 
civil, as may be necessary and best suited to the circumstances of the 
district, and report them to Congress from time to time : which laws 
shall be in force in the district until the organization of the General 
Assembly therein, unless disapproved of by Congress ; but, afterwards, 
the legislature shall have authority to alter them as they shall think fit. 

The governor, for the time being, shall be commander-in-chief of 
the militia, appoint and commission all officers in the same below the 
rank of general officers; all general officers shall be appointed and 
commissioned by Congress. 

Previous to the organization of the General Assembly, the governor 
shall appoint such magistrates and other civil officers, in each county 
or township, as he shall find necessary for the preservation of the 
peace and good order in the same : After the General Assembly shall 
be organized, the powers and duties of the magistrates and other civil 
officers, shall be regulated and defined by the said assembly ; but all 
magistrates and other civil officers, not herein otherwise directed, 
shall, during the continuance of this temporary government, be ap- 
pointed by the governor. 

For the prevention of crimes and injuries, the laws to be adopted 
or made shall have force in all parts of the district, and for the execu- 
tion of process, criminal and civil, the governor shall make proper 
divisions thereof ; and he shall proceed, from time to time, as circum- 
stances may require, to lay out the parts of the district in which the 
Indian titles shall have been extinguished, into counties and town- 
ships, subject, however, to such alterations as may thereafter be made 
by the legislature. 



474 APPENDIX. 

So soon as there shall be 5000 free male inhabitants of full age in 
the district, upon giving proof thereof to the governor, they shall 
receive authority, with time and place, to elect representatives from 
their counties or townships to represent them in the General Assembly: 
Provided, That, for every 500 free male inhabitants, there shall be 
one representative, and so on progressively with the number of free 
male inhabitants, shall the right of representation increase, until the 
number of representatives shall amount to 25; after which, the number 
and proportion of representatives shall be regulated by the legislature: 
Provided, That no person be eligible or qualified to act as a repre- 
sentative unless he shall have been a citizen of one of the United 
States three years, and be a resident in the district, or unless he 
shall have resided in the district three years ; and, in either case, 
shall likewise hold in his own right, in fee simple, 200 acres of land 
within the same : Provided, also. That a freehold in 50 acres of land 
in the district, having been a citizen of one of the States, and being 
resident in the district, or the like freehold and two years residence in 
the district, shall be necessary to qualify a man as an elector of a ' 
representative. 

The representatives thus elected, shall serve for the term of two 
years ; and, in case of the death of a representative, or removal from 
office, the governor shall issue a writ to the county or township for 
which ha was a member, to elect another in his stead, to serve for the 
residue of the term. 

The General Assembly, or Legislature, shall consist of the gov- 
ernor, legislative council, and a house of representatives. The legis- 
lative council shall consist of five members, to continue in office five 
years, unless sooner removed by Congress ; any three of whom to be 
a quorum : and the members of the council shall be nominated and 
appointed in the following manner, to wit: As soon as representatives 
shall be elected, the governor shall appoint a time and place for them 
to meet together; and, when met, they shall nominate ten persons, 
residents in the district, and each possessed of a freehold in 500 acres 
of land, and return their names to Congress; five of whom Congress 
shall appoint and commission to serve as aforesaid; and, whenever a 
vacancy shall happen in the council, by death or removal from office, 
the house of representatives shall nominate two persons, qualified as 
aforesaid, for each vacancy, and return their names to Congress ; one 
of whom Congress shall appoint and commission for the residue ot 
the term. And every five years, four months at least before the ex- 



TUE ORDINANCE OF 1787. 475 

piration of the time of service of the members of council, the said 
house shall nominate ten persons, qualified as aforesaid, and return 
their names to Congress; five of whom Congress shall appoint and 
commission to serve as members of the council five years, unless 
sooner removed. And the governor, legislative council, and house of 
representatives, shall have authority to make laws in all cases, for the 
good government of the district, not repugnant to the principles and 
articles in this ordinance established and declared. And all bills, 
having passed by a majority in the house, and by a majority in the 
council, shall be referred to the governor for his assent ; but no bill, 
or legislative act whatever, shall be of any force without his assent. 
The governor shall have power to convene, prorogue, and dissolve the 
General Assembly, when, in his opinion, it shall be expedient. 

The governor, judges, legislative council, secretary, and such other 
officers as Congress shall appoint in the district, shall take an oath or 
affirmation of fidelity and of office ; the governor before the President 
of Congress, and all other officers before the governor. As soon as a 
legislature shall be formed in the district, the council and house 
assembled in one room, shall have authority, by joint ballot, to elect 
a delegate to Congress, who shall have a seat in Congress, with a right 
of debating but not of voting during this temporary government. 

And, for extending the fundamental principles of civil and religious 
liberty, which form the basis whereon these republics, their laws and 
constitutions are erected; to fix and establish these principles as the 
basis of all laws, constitutions, and governments, which forever here- 
after shall be formed in the said territory: to provide also for the 
establishment of States, and permanent governments therein, and 
for their admission to a share in the federal councils on an equal foot- 
ing with the original States, at as early periods as may be consistent 
with the general interest : 

It is hereby ordained and declared hy the authority aforesaid, That the 
following articles shall be considered as articles of compact between 
the original States and the people and States in the said territory and 
forever remain unalterable, unless by common consent, to wit : 

Art. 1st. No person, demeaning himself in a peaceable and orderly 
manner, shall ever be molested on account of his mode of worship 
or religious sentiments, in the said territory. 

Art. 2d. The inhabitants of the said territory shall always be 
entitled to the benefits of the writ of habeas corpus, and of the trial 
by jury ; of a proportionate representation of the people in the legis- 



476 APPENDIX 

• 

lature; and of judicial proceedings according to the course of the 
common law. All persons shall be bailable, unless for capital of- 
fences, where the proof shall be evident or the presumption great. 
All fines shall be moderate; and no cruel or unusual punishments 
shall be inflicted. No man shall be deprived of his liberty or prop- 
erty, but b}^ the judgment of his peers or the law of the land; and, 
should the public exigencies make it necessary, for the common pres- 
ervation, to take any. person's property, or to demand his particular 
services, full compensation shall be made for the same. And, in the 
just preservation of rights and property, it is understood and de- 
clared, that no law ought ever to be made, or have force in the said 
territory, that shall, in any manner whatever, interfere with or affect 
private contracts or engagements, bona fide, and without fraud, previ- 
ously formed. 

Art. 3d. Religion, morality, and knowledge, being necessary to 
good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the 
means of education shall forever be encouraged. The utmost good 
faith shall always be observed towards the Indians ; their lands and. 
property shall never be taken from them without their consent ; and, 
in their property, rights, and liberty, they shall never be invaded or 
disturbed, unless in just and lawful wars authorized by Congress; 
but laws founded in justice and humanity, shall, from time to time, 
be made for preventing wrongs being done to them, and for preserv- 
ing peace and friendship with them. 

Art. 4th. The said territory, and the States which may be formed 
therein, shall forever remain a part of this confederacy of the United 
States of America, subject to the Articles of Confederation, and to 
such alterations therein as shall be constitutionally made ; and to all 
the acts and ordinances of the United States in Congress assembled, 
conformable thereto. The inhabitants and settlers in the said terri- 
tory shall be subject to pay a part of the federal debts contracted or 
to be contracted, and a proportional part of the expenses of govern- 
ment, to be apportioned on them by Congress according to the same 
common rule and measure by which apportionments thereof shall 
be made on the other States ; and the taxes, for paying their propor- 
tion, shall be laid and levied by the authority and direction of the 
legislatures of the district or districts, or new States, as in. the origi- 
nal States, within the time agreed upon by the United States in Con- 
gress assembled. The legislatures of those districts or new States, 
shall never interfere with the primary disposal of the soil by the 



TBE ORDINANCE OF 1787. 477 

United States in Congress assembled, nor with any regulations Con- 
gress may find necessary for securing the title in such soil to the bona 
Jide purchasers. No tax shall be imposed on lands the property of 
the United States; and, in no case, shall non-resident proprietors be 
taxed higher than residents. The navigable waters. leading into the 
Mississippi and St. Lawrence, and the carrying places between the 
same, shall be common highways, and forever free, as well to the in- 
habitants of the said territory as to the citizens of the United States, 
and those of any other States that may be admitted into the Con- 
federacy, without any tax, impost, or duty, therefor. 

Art. 5th. There shall be formed. in the said territory, not less 
than three nor more than five States; and the boundaries of the 
States, as soon as Virginia shall alter her act of cession, and consent 
to the same, shall become fixed and established as follows, to wit: 
The Western State in the said territory, shall be bounded by the 
Mississippi, the Ohio, and Wabash rivers ; a direct line drawn from 
the Wabash and Post St. Vincent's, due North, to the territorial line 
between the United States and Canada ; and, by the said territorial 
line, to the Lake of the Woods and Mississippi. The middle State 
shall be bounded by the said direct line, the Wabash from Post Vin- 
cent's, to the Ohio ; by the Ohio, by a direct line, drawn due North 
from the mouth of the Great Miami, to the said territorial line, and 
by the said territorial line. The Eastern State shall be bounded by 
the last mentioned direct line, the Ohio, Pennsylvania, and the said 
territorial line : Provided, however, and it is further understood and 
declared, that the boundaries of these three States shall be subject 
so far to be altered, that, if Congress shall hereafter find it expedient, 
they shall have authority to form one or two States in that part of 
the said territory which lies North of an East and West line drawn 
through the Southerly bend or extreme of lake Michigan. And, 
whenever any of the said States shall have 60,000 free inhabitants 
therein, such State shall be admitted, by its delegates, into the Con- 
gress of the United States, on an equal footing with the original 
States in all respects whatever, and shall be at liberty to form a per- 
manent constitution and State government : Provided, the constitu- 
tion and government so to be formed, shall be republican, and in 
conformity to the principles contained in these articles; and, so far 
as it can be consistent with the general interest of the confederacy, 
such admission shall be allowed at an earlier period, and when there 
may be a less number of free inhabitants in the State than 60,000. 



478 APPENDIX. 

Art. 6th. There shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servi- 
tude in the said territory, otherwise than in the punishment of 
crimes, Virhereof the party shall have been duly convicted : Provided, 
always, That any person escaping into the same, from whom labor 
or service is lawfully claimed in any one of the original States, such 
fugitive may be lawfully reclaimed and conveyed to the person claim- 
ing his or her labor or service as aforesaid. 

Be it ordained by the authority aforesaid, That the resolutions of the 
23d of April, 1784, relative to the subject of this ordinance, be, and 
the same are hereby, repealed and declared null and void. 

Done by the United States, in Congress assembled, the 13th day 
of July, in the year of our Lord 1787, and of their sovereignty 
and independence the twelfth. 



IV. 

THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Preamble. 

We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more per- 
fect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for 
the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the 
blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and 
establish this Constitution for the United States of America. 

ARTICLE I. The Legislative Department. 

Section I. Congress in General, 

All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress 
of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of 
Representatives. 

Section II. House of Representatives. 

\st Clause. The House of Representatives shall be composed of 
members chosen every second year by the people of the several 
States, and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications 
requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legis- 
lature. 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 479 

2d Clause. No person shall be a representative who shall not have 
attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen 
of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabit- 
ant of that State in which he shall be chosen. 

3d Clause. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned 
among the several States which may be included within this Union, 
according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by 
adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to 
service for a term of years, and, excluding Indians not taxed, three- 
fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made 
within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the 
United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such 
manner as they shall by law direct. The number of representatives 
shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall 
have at least one representative ; and until such enumeration shall be 
made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, 
Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, 
Connecticut five, New York six. New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, 
Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten. North Carolina five, South 
Carolina five, and Georgia three. 

4:th Clause. When vacancies happen in the representation from any 
State, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to 
fill such vacancies. 

5th Clause. The House of Representatives shall choose their 
Speaker and other officers ; and shall have the sole power of impeach- 
ment. 

Section III. The Senate. 

1st Clause. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of 
two senators from each State, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six 
years ; and each senator shall have one vote. 

2c? Clause. Immediately after they shall be assembled in conse- 
quence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be 
into three classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be 
vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the 
expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration 
of the sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every second year; 
and if vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the 
recess of the legislature of any State, the executive thereof may make 
temporary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, 
which shall then fill such vacancies. 



480 APPENDIX. 

3f/ Clause. No person shall be a senator who shall not have 
attained to the age of thh'ty years, and been nine years a citizen of 
the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant 
of that State for which he shall be chosen. 

4:th Clause. The Vice-President of the United States shall be Presi- 
dent of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 

5ih Clause. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a 
President pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when 
he shall exercise the office of President of the United States. 

Qth Clause. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeach- 
ments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall all be on oath or 
affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the 
Chief Justice shall preside ; and no person shall be convicted without 
the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present. 

1th Clause. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend 
further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and 
enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States ; but 
the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indict- 
ment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. 

Section IV. Both Houses. . 

\st Clause. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for 
senators and representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the 
legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by law make 
or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators. 

2(1 Clause. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, 
and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless 
they shall by law appoint a different day. 

Section V. The Houses Separately. 

\st Clause. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, 
and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall 
constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may 
adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attend- 
ance of absent members, in such manner and under such penalties as 
each house may provide. 

Id Clause. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, 
punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concur- 
rence of two-thirds, expel a member. 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 481 

Sd Clause. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedmgs, and 
from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in 
their judgment require secrecy; and tlie yeas and nays of the mem- 
bers of either house on any question shall, at the desire of one-fiftli of 
those present, be entered on the journal. 

4:th Clause. Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, 
without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, 
nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall be 
sitting. 

Section VI. Privileges and Disabilities of Members. 

1st Clause. The senators and representatives shall receive a com- 
pensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of 
the treasury of the United States. They shall, in all cases except 
treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest 
during their attendance at the session of their respective houses, and 
in going to and returning from the same; and for any speech or 
debate in either house, they shall not be questioned in any other 
place. 

2d Clause. No senator or representative shall, during the time for 
which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the author- 
ity of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emolu- 
ments whereof shall have been increased during such time ; and no 
person holding any office under the United States shall be a member 
of either house during his continuance in office. 

Section VII. Mode of passing Laws. 

\st Clause. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the 
House of Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur 
with amendments as on other bills. 

2d Clause. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Repre- 
sentatives and the Senate shall, before it become a law, be presented to 
the President of the United States ; if he approve he shall sign it, but 
if not he shall return it, with his objections, to that house in which it 
shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their 
journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration 
two-thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, 
together with the objections, to the other house, by which it shall 
likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two-thirds of that house, 

it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both houses 
2i 



482 APPENDIX. 

shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of persons vot- 
ing for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each 
house respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President 
within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented 
to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, 
unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which 
case it shall not be a law. 

3d Clause. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concur- 
rence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary 
(except on a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the 
President of the United States ; and before the same shall take effect, 
shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be re- 
passed by two-thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, 
according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. 

Section VHI. Powers granted to Congress. 

The Congress shall have power — 

\st Clause. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, 
to pay the debts, and provide for the common defense and general wel- 
fare of the United States ; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall 
be uniform throughout the United States ; 

2d Clause. To borrow money on the credit of the United States ; 

3rf Clause. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among 
the several States, and with the Indian tribes ; 

^th Clause. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and 
uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United 
States ; 

bth Clause. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of 
foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures ; 

Qth Clause. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the 
securities and current coin of the United States ; 

Ith Clause. To establish post-offices and post-roads; 

8/^ Clause. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by 
securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive 
right to their respective writings and discoveries ; 

9^/i Clause. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court; 

lO^A Clause. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed 
on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations ; 

Wth Clause. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, 
and make rules concerning captures on land and water ; 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 483 

12th Clause. To raise and support armies ; but no appropriation of 
money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years ; 

VSth Clause. To provide and maintain a navy ; 

lith Clause. To make rules for the government and regulation of 
the land and naval forces ; 

loth Clause. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the 
lavi^s of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions ; 

IQth Clause. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining 
the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed 
in the service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively 
the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the 
militia according to the discipline prescribed by the Congress ; 

17th Clause. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases what- 
soever, over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by 
cession of particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become 
the seat of the Government of the United States ; and to exercise like 
authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of 
the State in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, maga- 
zines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful buildings; — and 

ISth Clause. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper 
for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers 
vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, 
or in any department or officer thereof. 

Section IX' Powers denied to the United States. 

1st Clause. The migration or importation of sucli pei'sons as any 
of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be 
prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight 
hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such im- 
portation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. 

2d Clause. The privilege of the writ of the habeas corpus shall not 
be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public 
safety may require it. 

3c? Clause. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. 

4:th Clause. No capitation, or other direct tax shall be laid, unless 
in proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to 
be taken. 

5th Clause. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from 
any State. 

Qth Clause. No preference shall be given by any regulation of 



484 APPENDIX. 

commerce or revenue to the ports of one State over those of another ; 
nor shall vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, 
clear, or pay duties in another. 

7th Clause. No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in 
consequence of appropriations made by law ; and a regular statement 
and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall 
be published from time to time. 

8th Clause. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United 
States; and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them 
shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, eniolu- 
menti office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or 
foreign State. 

Section X. Powers denied to the States. 

\st Clause. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or con- 
federation ; grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin money ; emit 
bills of credit ; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in 
payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law 
impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 

2d Clause. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, 
lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be 
absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws; and the net 
produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any State on imports or 
exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States; 
and all such law^s shall be subject to the revision and control of the 
Congress. 

3d Clause. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay 
any duty of tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war in time of peace, 
enter into any agreement or compact with another State or with a 
foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such 
imminent danger as will not admit of delay. 

ARTICLE II. The Executive Department. 

Section I. President and Vice-President. 

1st Clause. The executive power shall be vested in a President of 
the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the 
term of four years, and, together with the Vice-President, chosen for 
the same term, be elected as follows : 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 485 

2d Clause. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legis- 
lature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole 
number of senators and representatives to which the State may be 
entitled in the Congress. But no senator or representative, or person 
holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be 
appointed an elector. 

[The 3d clause has been superseded by the 12th article of Amend- 
ments. See page 481.] 

4//i Clause. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the 
electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes, which day 
shall be the same throughout the United States. 

5th Clause. No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of 
the United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, 
shall be eligible to the office of President ; neither shall any person 
be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of 
thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident witliin the United 
States. 

Qtk Clause. In case of the removal of the President from office, or 
of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and 
duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President; 
and the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, 
resignation, or inability, both of the President and Vice-President, 
declaring what officer shall then act as President, and such officer 
shall act accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a President 
shall be elected. 

7th Clause. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his 
services a compensation, which shall neither be increased nor dimin- 
ished during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he 
shall "not receive within that period any other emolument from the 
United States, or any of them. 

8th Clause. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall 
take the following oath or affirmation : — 

"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the 
office of President of the United States, and will, to the best of my 
ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United 
States." 

Section II. Powers of the President. 

\st Clause. The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army 
and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States, 



48 G APPENDIX. 

when called into the actual service of the United States; he may re- 
quire the opinion, in writing, of the xDrincipal officer in each of the 
executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their 
respective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons 
for offences against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 

2d Clause. He shall have power, by and with the advice and con- 
sent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the sena- 
tors present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the 
advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint, ambassadors, other 
public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all 
other officers of the United States, whose appointments are not herein 
otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law ; but 
the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior offi- 
cers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the courts of law, 
or in the heads of departments. 

M Clause. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies 
that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting com- 
missions, which shall expire at the end of their next session. 

Section III. Duties of the President. 

He shall from time to time give to the Congress information of 
the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such 
measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on ex- 
traordinary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, and in 
case of disagreement between them with respect to the time of adjourn- 
ment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper ; he 
shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers; he siiall take 
care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all 
the officers of the United States. 

Section IV. Impeachment of the President. 

The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the United 
States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and con- 
viction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE III. The Judicial Department. 

Section I. The United States Courts. 

The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Su- 
preme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 487 

time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme 
and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and 
shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation, which 
shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. 

Section II. Jurisdiction of the United States Courts. 

1st Clause. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law 
and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United 
States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their author- 
ity ; to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and 
consuls; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; to con- 
troversies to which the United States shall be a party; to contro- 
versies between two or more States; between a State and citizens 
of another State ; between citizens of different States ; between citi- 
zens of the same State claiming lands under grants of different States, 
and between a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citi- 
zens, or subjects. 

2d Clause. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, 
and consuls, and those in which a State shall be a party, the Supreme 
Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before 
mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both 
as to law and fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations 
as the Congress shall make. 

3c? Clause. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, 
shall be by jury; and such trial shall be held in the State where the 
said crimes shall have been committed ; but when not committed 
within any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Con- 
gress may by law have directed. 

Section III. Treason. 

1st Clause. Treason against the United States shall consist only in 
levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving 
them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless 
on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confes- 
sion in open court. 

2c? Clause. The Congress shall have power to declare the punish- 
ment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of 
blood, or forfeiture except during the life of the person attainted. 



488 APPENDIX. 

ARTICLE IV. Miscellaneous Provisions. 

Section I. State Records. 

Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public acts, 
records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And the Con- 
gress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which such acts, 
records, aiitl proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. 

Section II. Privileges of Citizens. 

\st Clause. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privi- 
leges and immunities of citizens in the several States. 

2d Clause. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or 
other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, 
shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State from which 
he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction 
of the crime. 

Zd Clause. No person held to service or labor in one State, under the 
laws thereof , escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or 
regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall 
be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor 
may be due. 

Section III. New States and Territories. 

\st Clause. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this 
Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the juris- 
diction of any other State ; nor any State be formed by the junction 
of two or more States, or parts of States, without the consent of the 
legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. 

2d Clause. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make 
all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other 
property belonging to the United States ; and nothing in this Consti- 
tution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United 
States or of any particular State. 

Section IV. Guarantees to the States. 

The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a 
republican form of government, and shall protect each of them 
against invasion ; and on application of the legislature, or of the exec- 
utive (when the legislature cannot be convened), against domestic 
violence. 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 489 

ARTICLE V. Powers of Amendment. 

The Congress, whenever two-thu'ds of both houses shall deem it 
necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the 
application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, shall 
call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, 
shall be valid, to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, 
when ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, 
or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other 
mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress : provided that 
no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand 
eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and 
fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article ; and that no 
State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in 
the Senate. 

ARTICLE VI. Public Debt, Supremacy of the Constitution, 
Oath of Office, Religious Test. 

1st Clause. All debts contracted and engagements entered into be- 
fore the adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the 
United States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. 

2d Clause. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States 
which shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or 
which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall 
be the supreme law of the land ; and the judges in every State shall 
be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any State 
to the ccuitrary notwithstanding. 

3c? Clause. The senators and representatives before mentioned, 
and the members of the several State legislatures, and all executive 
and judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several 
States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Constitu- 
tion ; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to 
any office or public trust under the United States. 

ARTICLE VII. Ratification of the Constitution. 

The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be sufficient 
for the establishment of this Constitution between the States so rati- 
fying the same. 



490 APPENLI/X. 



AMENDMENTS 

PROPOSED BY CONGRESS, AND RATIFIED BY THE LEGISLATURES OF THE SEVERAL STATES, 
PURSUANT TO THE FIFTH ARTICLE OF THE ORIGINAL CONSTITUTION. 

Article I. Freedom of Religion. 

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of relig- 
ion, or i3rohibiting tlie free exercise thereof; or abridging the free- 
dom of speech or of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably to 
assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. 

Article II. Right to hear Arms. 

A vi^ell-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free 
state, the right of the people to keep and bear arn)s shall not be 
infringed. 

Article III. Quartering Soldiers on Citizens. 

No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house with- 
out the consent of the owner, nor in time of war but in a manner to 
be prescribed by law. 

Article IV. Search Warraiits. 

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, 
and eftects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be 
violated, and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, sup- 
ported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place 
to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. 

Article V. Trial for Crime. 

No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infa- 
mous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, 
except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, 
when in actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall 
any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeop- 
ardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to 
be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or prop- 
erty without due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken 
for public use without just compensation. 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 4DI 

Article VI. Rights of Accused Persons. 

In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a 
speedy and public trial by an impartial jury of the IState and district 
wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall 
have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the 
nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the wit- 
nesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining wit- 
nesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his 
defence. 

Article VII. Sidls at Common Law. 

In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed 
twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no 
fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise reexamined in any court of 
the United States than according to the rules of the common law. 

Article VIII. Excessive Bail. 

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, 
nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 

Article IX. Rights Retained by the People. 

The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be 
construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. 

Article X. Reserved Rights of the States. 

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, 
nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respec- 
tively, or to the people. 

Article XI. 

The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to 
extend to any suit, in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against 
one of the United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or 
subjects of any foreign state. 

Article XII. 

\st Clause. The electors shall meet in their respective States, and 
vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, 
shall not be "ii inhabitant of the same State with themselves; they 
shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in 



492 APPENDIX. 

distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall 
make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all per- 
sons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, 
which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat 
of the government of the United States, directed to the President of 
the Senate; the President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the 
Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and 
the votes shall then be counted ; the person having the greatest num- 
ber of votes for President shall be the President, if such number be a 
majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if no person 
have such majority, then from the persons having the highest num- 
bers, not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, 
the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the 
President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken 
by States, the representation from each State having one vote; a 
quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from 
two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be nec- 
essary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not 
choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon 
them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice- 
President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other 
constitutional disability of the President. 

2d Clause. The person having the greatest number of votes as 
Vice-President shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a 
majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if no person 
have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list the 
Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose 
shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of senators, and a 
majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. 

3d Clause. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office 
of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United 
States. 

Article XIII, 

Section I. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a 
punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly con- 
victed, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to 
their jurisdiction. 

Sec. II. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by 
appropriate legislation. 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 493 



Article XIV. 

Section T. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, 
and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United 
States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or 
enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of 
citizens of the United States ; nor shall any State deprive any person 
of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, nor deny any 
person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. 

Sec. II. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several 
States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole num- 
ber of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when 
the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for Presi- 
dent and Vice-President of the United States, representatives in Con- 
gress, the executive and judicial officers of a State, or the members of 
the legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of 
such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United 
States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion or 
other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in 
the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to 
the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such 
State. 

Sec. III. No person shall be a senator or representative in Con- 
gress, or elector of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, 
civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, 
having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an 
officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, 
or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Con- 
stitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or 
rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies 
thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds of each house, 
remove such disability. 

Sec. IV. The validity of the public debt of the United States, 
authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions 
and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall 
not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State 
shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insur- 
rection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the 
loss or emancipation of any slave ; but all such debts, obligations, and 
claims shall be held illegal and void. 



^104 APPENDIX. 

» 

Sec. V. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate 
legislation, the provisions of this article. 

Article XV. 

Section I. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall 
not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any State, on 
account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 

Sec. II. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by 
appropriate legislation. 



rilE UNITED STATES. 



495 



THE UNITED STATES 

STATES. 



CENSUS OF 1900. 



Name. 


Date of 
Admission. 


Square 
Miles. 


Population. 


1. Delaware .... ] 


Q • i f 

2. • a 


Dec. 7, 17N7 


2,050 


184,735 


2. Penusylvania . . 


Dec. 12, 1787 


45,215 


6,302,115 


3. New Jersey . . . 


(J5 O 


Dec. 18, 1787 


7,815 


1,883,669 


4. Georgia .... 




Jan. 2, 1788 


59,475 


2,216,331 


5. Connecticut . . . 


- o 


Jan. 9, 1788 


4,990 


908,420 


6. Massachusetts . . 


^ • § i 


Feb. 7, 1788 


8,315 


2,805,346 


7. Maryland .... 


r 1 • 1 -B - 


April 28,1788 


12,210 


1,188,044 


8. South Carolina . . 


% ■ o 5 


May 28, 1788 


30,570 


1,340,816 


9. New Hampshire . 


3 • "S 


June 21, 1788 


9,305 


411,588 


10. Virginia .... 


Oi . ^ 


June 26, 1788 


42,450 


1,854,184 


11. New York . . . 


g • I 


July 26, 1788 


49,170 


7,268,894 


12. North Carolina . . 


i ■ 1 


Nov. 21, 1789 


52,250 


1,893,810 


13. Rhode Island . . 


•" . Q 


May 29, 1790 


1,250 


428,556 


14. Vermont 


March 4, 1791 
June 1, 1792 


9,.565 
40,400 


348,641 
2,147,174 


15. Kentucky 


16. Tennessee 


June 1, 1796 


42,050 


2,020,616 


17. Ohio 


Feb. 19, 1803 


41,060 


4,157,545 




April 30, 1812 
Dec. 11, 1816 


48,720 
86,350 


1,881,625 


19 Indiana ... . . . . 


2,516,462 


20 Mississippi . ... 


Dec 10, 1817 


46,810 


1,551,270 
4,821,550 


21. IHinois 


Dec. 3, 1818 


56,650 


22. Alabama 


Dec. 14, 1819 


52,250 


1,828,697 


23. Maine 


March 15, 1820 


33,040 


694,466 




Aug. 10, 1821 


69,415 
53,850 
58 915 


3,106,665 


25 Arkansas . . 


June 15, 1836 
Jan 26 1837 


1,811 564 


26 Michi"-an 


2,420,982 

528,542 


27. Florida 


March 3, 1845 


58,680 


28. Texas 


Dec. 29, 1845 


265,780 


3,048,710 


29. Iowa 


Dec. 28, 1846 


56,025 


2i^31,853 


30 Wisconsin ... 


May 29, 1848 


56,040 


2,069,042 
1 485 058 


31 California 


Sept. 9, 1850 
Mav 11, 1858 
Feb. 14, 1859 


158 360 




83,365 
96,030 


1,751,394 


33. Oregon 


418,586 


34 Kansas 


Jan 29 1861 


82,080 
24.780 


1,470,495 
958,800 


35. West Virginia 


June 19, 1863 


36. Nevada 


Oct. 81, 1864 


110,700 


42,885 


87. Nebraska 


March 1, 1867 


77,510 


1,068,300 


88. Colorado 


Aug. 1, 1876 


103,925 


589,700 


89 North Dakota 


Feb. 22, 1889 
Feb. 22, 1889 


70,795 
77,650 


319,146 


40. South Dakota 


401,570 


41. Montana 


Feb. 22, 1889 


146,080 


248,329 


42. Washington 


Feb. 22, 1889 


69,180 


518,103 


4;3. Idaho 


July 3, 1890 


84,800 


161,772 


44. Wyoming 


July 10, 1890 


97,890 


92,531 


45 Utah - . 


Jan. 4, 1896 


84,970 


276,749 







TERRITORIES AND DETACHED POSSESSIONS. 



Name. 


Square 
Miles. 


Population. 


New Mexico Territory, organized .... Sept. 9, 1850 

Arizona Territory, organized Feb. 24, 1863 

District of Columbia, or (/(/wiseci Mar. 30,1791 

Indian Territory, or^an/zffZ Tune 30,1884 

Alaska Territory, orgra^i/sec? June 27,1868 

Oklahoma Territory, organized May 2, 1890 

Hawaii Territory, organized April 30, 1900 

Phihppine Islands, acquired ...... Dec. 10, 1898 

Fovto Rico, orga7iized April 12,1900 


122,580 

113,020 

70 

81,400 

590,884 

39,030 

6,449 

114,356 

3.606 


195,310 
122,931 
278,718 
392,060 
63,592 
898,331 
154,001 
7,000,000 
95:3,243 







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496 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Abolitionists, rise of, 299, 300 ; perse- 
cution of, 300; opposition to peti- 
tions, 300, 301. 

Acadia, definition, 20; name first 
given to country claimed by French, 
29 ; English send colony to, 91 ; map, 
94; some Frencli Acadians hostile 
to English, 9-1 ; all French families 
removed from, 95 ; attendant suffer- 
ing, 95. 

Accused persons, rights of, 491. 

Ackerman, Amos T., Attorney Gen- 
eral, 438. 

A-dams, John, portrait, 145; nomi- 
nates Washington commander-in- 
chief of army, 11(5; sketch, 140; 
signs treaty of peace, 184 ; minister 
to England, 191 ; chosen first Vice 
President, 202, 255; administration, 
226-228 ; died on Fourth of July, 285. 

Adams, John Quincy, objects to Rus- 
sia's claim, 2<)(), 267; portrait, 284 ; 
public services of, 285 ; administra- 
tion, 285; sides with Georgia In- 
dians, 287; tries to buy Texas, 298; 
defends right of petition, 301 ; Secre- 
tary of State, 319. 

Adams, Samuel, sketch, 137; proposes 
committees of correspondence, 138; 
portrait, 138 ; prevents landing of 
tea in Boston, 139. 

Advocate General, 123. 

Africa, Asia sought round coast of, 2; 
discoveries along west coast, 452. 

Agriculture, Department of, created, 
410. 

Alabama, added to Union, 276. 

Alabama, Confederate vessel, built at 
Liverpool, 362; sunk by Kearsarge, 
380. 

Alabama Claims, 395. 

Alamo, storming of the, 307. 

Alaska, 459 ; purchase of, 393. 

Albany, once Fort Orange, 35, 3p, 63; 
early shops in, 115. 

Albany Congress, 92. 



Albany Plan of Union, mainly due to 
Franklin, 124; rejected, 125. 

Albemarle, Confederate ram, blown 
up, 380. 

Albemarle Colony, 83, 

Aleutian Islands, 446. 

Alexander VI., pope, decrees "Line of 
Demarcation," 13. 

Alger, Russell A., Secretary of War, 
442. 

Algiers, brought to terms by Decatur, 
252. 

Algonquin Indians, home of, 23; hos- 
tile to Iroquois, 30. 

Alien and Sedition Acts, 227. 

Alleghanies, fixed as western bound- 
ary, 177, 178. 

Allen, Ethan, 149. 

Allston, Washington, 327. 

Amazon River, 461. 

Amboy, N.J., Howe cooped up at, 169. 

Amendment, powers of, 489. 

Amendments to the Constitution, in- 
frequent, 204; Thirteenth, 389; 
Fourteenth, Fifteenth, 390. 

America, named after Amerigo Ves- 
pucci, 12; known not to be part of 
Asia, 14; conquests of Spain in, 15; 
Breton fishermen visit, 2(5, 27 ; Ver- 
razano's voyage to, 27 ; English dis- 
coveries in, 40; whole, continent 
protected by Monroe doctrine, 267. 
See Central America, North America, 
South America. 

American army, foreign officers flock 
to, 161 ; intrenched on Long Island, 
166 ; discouraged by defeats, 167, 
168; sufferings of , 1()8 ; into winter 
quarters at Morristown, 169; de- 
feated at Brandywine, 172 ; encour- 
aged by Burgoyne's surrender, 173; 
sufferings and heroism at Valley 
Forge, 175, 176; disbanded, 184; 
homeless condition of, 185. 

American commissioners, arrange 
treaty of peace, 184. 



497 



498 



GENERAL INDEX, 



American navy, few ships in (1776), 
165; effect of letters of marque on, 
178; exploits in war with Tripoli, 
237, 238 ; victories in War of 1812, 
245 ; on Lake Erie, 246. 

Americans, restricted meaning of, 
133. 

Amherst, Sir Jeffrey, takes Louisburg, 
96. 

Amsterdam, traders from, on Manhat- 
tan Island, 35 ; Separatists go to, 48. 

Anderson, Major Robert,, occupies 
Fort Sumter, 349 ; refuses to surren- 
der, 353 ; evacuates fort, 354 ; raises 
tlag again over Fort Sumter, 383. 

Andersonville Prison, 386. 

Andre', Major John, captured and 
hanged as spy, 180. 

Andros, Sir Edmund, appointed gov- 
ernor of Province of New England 
and New York, 64; deposed, 65. 

Annapolis, Md., first called Provi- 
dence, 78. 

Annapolis Basin, fur-trading post es- 
tablished at, 29. 

Antarctic Continent, Wilkes's explora- 
tion of, 326. 

Anthracite coal, 275. 

Anti-Federalists, opposed to Hamilton, 
206; oppose United States Bank, 
206. See also Democratic-Repub- 
lican party ; Republican party. 

Anti-Nebraska men, 339, 341 ; be- 
come Republican party, 342. 

Antietam Creek, battle of, 372. 

Antislavery men, growing in strength, 
299, 300 ; desert Clay, 302. See also 
Abolitionists ; Slavery. 

Appalachian range, 269, 459, 460; coal 
and iron in, 274, 275; Union senti- 
ment in, 354. 

Appomattox Court House, Lee surren- 
ders at, 383. 

Arbitration, International, at Geneva, 
395; regarding Venezuela, 414. 

Arctic expedition, Kane's, 338. 

Aristocracy, patroons constitute an, 
116. 

Arizona, penetrated by Coronado, 16 ; 
cliff-dwellers in, 19; part of Mexi- 
can cession, 306. 

Arkansas, admitted to Union, 297 ; 
pronunciation of word, 297. 

Arkansas River, 31. 

Armories, national, modeled after Eli 
Whitney's buildings, 211. 

Arms, right to bear, 490. 

Armstrong, General, services of, 391. 

Armstrong, John, Secretary of War, 
257. 



Army of Northern Virginia (Con- 
federate), 360. 

Army of the Cumberland, 377. 

Army of the Potomac, 360; map of 
operations, 369; Grant takes head- 
quarters with, 378. 

Arnold, Benedict, marches to Quebec, 
149, 150 ; sent to relieve Fort Stan- 
wix, 171 ; bravery at Saratoga, 173 ; 
treachery, 180; General Hull com- 
pared to, 243. 

Aroostook War, 285. 

Arthur, Chester Alan, administration, 
404-406; sketch, 404; portrait, 405 ; 
Vice President, 439. 

Articles of Confederation, purport of, 
159; first step to real union, KiO. 

Ashburton, Lord, English Commis- 
sioner on northeastern boundary, 
309, 311. 

Asia, Columbus hoped by sailing west 
to reach, 1,3 ; commerce with Europe 
cut off by Turks, 2 ; importance of 
finding new route to eastern part of, 
2, 451 ; Columbus carries letter to 
Great Khan of, 6. 

Astor, John Jacob, establishes Astoria, 
310. 

Astoria, 310. 

Atlanta, taken by Sherman, 381. 

Atlanta Exposition, 413. 

Atlantic Avenue, Boston, Tablet com- 
memorating teaparty on, 140. 

Atlantic cable, 393. 

Atlantic coast, 458, 459; English colo- 
nies on, 109. 

Atlantic Ocean, Toscanelli lays route 
across, 3 ; called Sea of Darkness, 6. 

Australian ballot law, 412. 

Azores, 3. 

Bacon's Rebellion, 81. 

Badger, George E., Secretary of Navy, 
322. 

Bahama Islands, Columbus first landed 
on one of, 11. 

Bail, excessive, 491. 

Bainbridge, Commodore, captures the 
Java, 245. 

Baker, Edward, Attorney General, 4.37. 

Balboa, first European to see western 
shore of Pacific, 14. 

Baltimore, Lords. See Calvert. 

Baltimore, 120; founded, 78; unsuc- 
cessful attack on, 249 ; Garrison sent 
to jail in, 299; Democratic national 
convention of 1860 at, 344 ; first 
blood of Civil War at, 357. 

Bancroft, George, 331; Secretary of 
Navy, 322. 



GENERAL INDEX, 



499 



Bank of the United States, see United 
States Bank. 

Banks, General, elected Speaker, 341 ; 
repulsed by Stonewall Jackson, 370 ; 
forced back at Cedar Mountain, 372. 

Banks, only three in country, 206; 
national, established, 375. 

Bannocks, 112. 

Barbadoes Islands, 82, 83. 

Barbara Frietchie, 380. 

Barbaiy pirates, 236. 

Barbary states, sign treaties with 
United States, 252. 

Barbour, James, Secretary of War, 320. 

Barry, William T., Postmaster Gen- 
eral, 320, 321. 

Bartboldi's Statue of Liberty, 408. 

Bartram, John, botanist, 120. 

Bastile, key of, sent to Washington, 
222. 

Bayard, Thomas F., Secretary of State, 
440. 

Bear Flag expedition, 307. 

Beauregard, General, in charge at 
Charleston harbor, 349; tires on 
Fort Sumter, 353; commands Army 
of Northern Virginia, 360. 

Beecher, Henry Ward, 336. 

Behaim, Martin, globe of, 7; cut of 
globe, 8. 

Belknap, William W., Secretary of 
War, 4:38. 

Bell, Alexander Graham, 400. 

Bell, John, Secretary of War, 322; 
nominated for President, 344. 

Bennington, battle of, 171. 

Berkeley, Sir William, vexes Puritans, 
78 ; opposition to, as governor of 
Virgijiia, 81. 

Berlin Conference, 405. 

Berlin Decree, 238. 

Berrien, John McPherson, Attorney 
General, 320. 

Bibb, George M., Secretary of Treas- 
ury, 322. 

Bible, translated into Indian tongue, 
5i). 

Bidrleford, Maine, founded, 59. 

B if/low Papers, satirizes Mexican War, 
33(). 

Bill of Rights, added as amendment 
to Constitution, 205. 

Bissell, Wilson S., Postmaster Gen- 
eral, 441. 

Black, Jeremiah S., Attorney General, 
Secretary of State, 4:36. 

Black Hawk Campaign, Abraham Lin- 
coln in, 352. 

Black Hills Reservation, invaded by 
settlers, 400. 



Blaine, James Gillespie, Secretary of 
State, 440, 441. 

Blair, Montgomery, Postmaster Gen- 
eral, 437. 

Blennerhasset, 235. 

Blessing of the Bay, Winthrop's ves- 
sel, 55, 56. 

Bliss, Cornelius N., Secretary of Inte- 
rior, 442. 

Blockade, ordered against Southern 
ports, 358 ; difficult to maintain, 
360; strengthened, 380. 

Bon Homme Richard, fights with Sera- 
pis, 179. 

Bonaparte. See Napoleon I. 

Book of Mormon, 313. 

Boone, Daniel, settles in Kentucky, 
215; portrait, 216. 

Boonesborongh, Kentucky, 215, 216. 

Booth, John Wilkes, assassinates Lin- 
coln, 383, 384. 

Borie, Adolph E., Secretary of Navy, 
438. 

Boston, named, 53; settlement, 54, 55 ; 
General Court formed at, 5(5 ; de- 
poses Andros, 65; town meeting in, 
113; birthplace of Franklin, ^117 ; 
Liberty Tree in, 132, 133; fortified 
by Gage, 142 ; map, 143 ; British re- 
treat towards, 144; surrounded by 
patriots, 144; British army remains 
in, 149; siege of, ended, 151 ; French 
fleet put into, for repairs, 177; joy 
at, over capture of the Guerriere, 
245; Garrison mobbed in, 299. 

Boston Massacre, 137; John Adams 
defends soldiers engaged in, 146. 

Boston News Letter, first newspaper 
in colonies, 124. 

Boston Port Bill, 140. 

Boston Tea Party, 139. 

Boundary, northeastern , disputes over, 
308; northwestern, disputes over, 
309-311; settled, 312; natural, of 
the United States, 457, 458. 

Bouquet, Colonel Henry, breaks Pon- 
tiac's power, 100. 

Boutwell, George S., Secretary of 
Treasury, 438. 

Boycott, 135. 

Braddock's Defeat, 93. 

Bradford, Governor William, his His- 
tory of Ply month Plantation, 67. 

Bradford, William, Attorney General, 
255. 

Bragg, General, wins atChickamauga, 
377. 

Branch, John, Secretary of Navy, 
320. 

Brandywine, battle of, 172. 



500 



GENERAL INDEX, 



Brant, Joseph, at battle of Oriskauy, 
171. 

Brazil, falls to Portugal by decree of 
Alexander III., 13; recent changes 
of government in, 13. 

Breckenridge, John, Attorney General, 
257. 

Breckenridge, John C, nominated for 
President. 344 ; Vice President, 436. 

Breed's Hill, 147. 

Breton fishermen visit America, 26, 27. 

Brewster, Benjamin H., Attorney Gen- 
eral, 440. 

Bristow, Benjamin H.. Secretary of 
Treasury, 438. 

British army, evacuates Boston, 151 ; 
expedition to Charleston, 153; cam- 
paign in South (1778), 177; takes 
Charleston, 179; defeats Gates, 180; 
Green harasses, 181 ; retreats to Vir- 
ginia, 182; trapped at Yorktown, 
182 ; surrenders, 183 ; evacuates 
New York, 184. 

British fleet, at Newport, 177. 

Brock, General Isaac, captures De- 
troit, 243; mortally wounded, 244. 

Brook, Lord, holds patent to land on 
Connecticut River, 56. 

Brooklyn Heights commanded by Put- 
nam, 1()6. 

Brown, Aaron V., Postmaster General, 
436. 

Brown, John, of Ossawatomie, invades 
Missouri, 341 ; raids Harper's Ferry, 
343 ; hanged, 343. 

Browning, Orville H., Secretary of the 
Interior, 437. 

Brunswick, N.J., Howe cooped up at, 
169. 

Bryan, William J., candidate for Pres- 
ident, 414, 416, 425. 

Bryant, William Cullen, 332 ; portrait, 
271. 

Buchanan, James, Secretary of State, 
322; administration of, 341-344; 
sketch, 341 ; portrait, 342 ; reinforces 
Fort Sumter, 349; divisions in his 
cabinet, 350. 

Buell, General, joins Grant at Shiloh, 
364. 

Buena Vista, battle of, .305. 

Buffalo, the, uses to Indians, 22. 

Bunker Hill, battle of, 147, 148. 

Bull Run, battle of, 358 ; second battle, 
372. 

Burgoyne, captures Ticonderoga, 170, 
171 ; cut off from retreat, 171 ; de- 
feat of, 173. 

Burke, Edmund, opposes policy of 
George III., 150. 



Burlington, N.J., 72. 

Burnside, General, given command of 
Union forces, 372 ; defeated at 
Fredericksburg, 372; succeeded by 
Hooker, 376. 

Burr, Aaron, kills Hamilton in duel, 
234 ; schemes of, 234 ; tried for trea- 
son, not convicted, 234; Vice Presi- 
dent, 256. 

Bushy Run, battle of, 106. 

Butler, Benjamin F., of New York, 
Attorney General, 321. 

Butler, General Benjamin F., of Mas- 
sachusetts, declares slaves "contra- 
band of war," 360 ; placed over New 
Orleans, 365. 

Byles, Rev. Mather, loyalist daughters 
of, 158. 

Cabal, definition of, 164; against Gen- 
eral Washington, 175. 

Cabinet, the first, 202 ; no mention of, 
in Constitution, 203 ; importance of, 
203; increased by Secretary of In- 
terior, 324. 

Cabins, frontier, 218. 

Cabot, John, touches North America, 
40. 

Calhoun, John C, 242; and State sov- 
ereignty, 285-287 ; portrait, sketch, 
286 ; claims that a State can refuse 
to obey Federal laws, 294; Secre- 
tary of War, Vice President, 319, 
320 ; Secretary of State, 321. 

California, visited by Drake, 41; sup- 
posed plan for Russia to take, 266 ; 
independence of, declared, 305; part 
of Mexican cession, 306; gold dis- 
covered in, 312 ; routes to, 312 ; rapid 
growth, 312 ; applies for admission 
to Union, 314; admitted, 315. 

Calvert, Cecil, Lord Baltimore, sends 
colonists to Maryland, 77. 

Calvert, George, Lord Baltimore, not 
welcome in Virginia, 76 ; is granted 
charter to Maryland, 77. 

Calverts, the, wise rule of, in Mary- 
land, 77, 78. 

Camden, S.C, Gates defeated at, 180. 

Cameron, James D., Secretary of War, 
439. 

Cameron, Simon, Secretary of War, 
437. 

Campbell, George W., Secretary of 
Treasury, 257. 

Campbell, James, Postmaster General, 
436. 

Canada, early visited by Breton fish- 
ermen, 27 ; Cartier takes possession 
of, 28; voyages of Champlain to, 29; 



GENERAL INDEX. 



501 



Jesuit missionaries in, 30; given up 
by France, i)9; French inhabitants 
remain in, l)i»; refuses to join Con- 
federation, IGO; tighting on border 
in War of 1812, 24o, 244 ; campaign of 
1814 against, 247 ; British compelled 
to return to, 249; maintains small 
naval force on Great Lakes, 26:3. 

Canal tolls, abolished in New York, 
273. 

Canary Islands, 451; plan of Colum- 
bus to sail due west from, 1; first 
destination of Columbus, 7. 

Cape Breton, origin of name, 27; 
Cabot touches near, 41. 

Cape Cliarles, 45. 

Cape Cod, named by Gosnold, 44. 

Cape Fear, Verrazano touches near, 27. 

Cape Fear River, settled from New 
England, 82. 

Cape Henry, 45. 

Cape Nun, 452. 

Cape of Good Hope, 451 ; rounded by 
Vasco da Gama, 2 ; rounded by com- 
panions of Magellan sailing west- 
ward, 15. 

Cape Verde Islands, discovered, 451. 

Capital, national, first in New York, 
202; Hamilton's promise regarding, 
20(). See also Washington, D.C. 

Capitol, at Washington, extended, 324. 

Caravels, vessels in which Columbus 
sailed, 7. 

Carlisle, John G., Secretary of Treas- 
ury, 441. 

Carlyle, Thomas, his saying on Web- 
ster, 292. 

Carnegie, Andrew, 424. 

Carolina, 82 ; divided into two prov- 
inces, 84. 

Carpenters' Hall, Philadelphia, cut, 
142. 

" Carpet Baggers," 391. 

Carroll, Charles, his signature, 157. 

Carrying trade, secured largely by 
Americans, 238 ; falls off, 270. 

Cartier, Jacques, discovers river and 
gulf of St. Lawrence, 28. 

Casco Bay, Gosnold touches near, 44. 

Cask, water, invented by Norsemen, 
448. 

Cass, Lewis, Secretary of War, 320, 
321 ; Secretary of State, 436. 

Caucus, 152. 

Cedar Mountain, battle of, 372. 

Census, 428 ; first, 209 ; of 1890, table 
by States and Territories, 495. 

Centennial of 1876, 398. 

Central America, conquered by Spain, I 
15 : remains of ancient civilization I 



I in, 19; becomes a republic, 2GG; 
! Walker's expedition to, 341. 

Cerro Gordo, Mexico, battle of, 305. 

Chachagou-ession, probable origin of 
I the name Chicago, 31. 
! Chadd's Ford, 172. 

Chaleur Bay, discovered by Cartier, 28. 

Chambersburg, Pa., burnt by Early, 
379. 

Champlaiii, first visits Canada, 29; 
founds Que])ec, 29; gains victory 
over Iroquois Indians, 31 ; reaches 
Lake Huron, dies, 31. 

Chancellorsville, battle of, 37(). 

Chandler, William E., Secretary of 
Navy, 440. 

Chandler, Zachariah, Secretary of 
Interior, 439. 

Chapultepec, rock of, taken, 306. 

Charles I. of England, dissolves Par- 
liament, 52 ; wars with Parliament, 
61 ; executed, 61 ; gives George Cal- 
vert charter to Maryland, 77. 

Charles 11, of England, comes to 
throne, 62; takes charter from 
Massachusetts, 64; yearly tribute 
from Penn, 74; loyalty to, in Vir- 
ginia, 80; makes grants in the Caro- 
linas, 82. 

Charleston, S.C, 120; settled, 83; ear- 
ly importance, 83; social life in, 
84; British attack on, 153; captured 
(1780), 179; evacuated, 184; conven- 
tion of 1860 in, 344 ; forts in harbor, 
349; evacuated, 382. 

Charlestown, Mass., 147; settled, 53. 

Charter Oak, cut of, 65. 

Charters of New England colonies, 
void, 64 ; restored, 66. 

Chase, Salmon P., and the national 
currency, 375 ; Secretary of Treas- 
ury, 437. 

Chattanooga, siege of, 377. 

" Cheese box," the Monitor called, 367. 

Chesapeake affair, 239. 

Chesapeake Bay, entered by Captain 
Newport, 45; George Calvert sails 
up, 76. 

Chester, Penn holds first Assembly at, 
75. 

Chicago, 283; present site of, visited 
by Marquette, 31 ; probable origin of 
name, 31 ; Chicago fire, 395 ; World's 
Columbian Exposition at, 413. 

Chickahominy River, 368. 

Chickamauga, battle of, 377. 

Chickasaw Indians, 23. 

Chinese immigration, 405. 

Chippewa, battle of, 247. 

Choctaw Indians, 23. 



502 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Christian Indians, 63. 

Christina of Sweden, interest of, in 
New Sweden, 37. 

Christoplier, defiuitiou, xvi. 

Church of England, Separatists leave, 
48, 49 ; Puritans members of, 52. 

Churches, social rank in, 112, 113; un- 
taxed, 213; separate from State, 
213, 214. 

Churubusco, Mexico, battle of, 30(). 

Cincinnati, Ohio, settled, 231; Cincin- 
nati, order of, 38G. 

Cipaugo, a name for Japan, 7. 

Circumnavigation of globe by Magel- 
lan's companions, 15; made by 
Drake, 41. 

Cities, rapid growth of, 329, 330. 

Citizens, privileges of, 488. 

Civil Rights Bill, 390. 

Civil Service Reform, beginnings of, 
396. 

Clark, George Rogers, frontiersman, 
178. 

Clarke River, discovered, 234. 

Clay, Henry, 242 ; effects Missouri 
Compromise, 283; leader of Whig 
party, 289; sketch, 289; portrait, 
290; proposes Compromise Tariff, 
294; nominated against Polk, 302; 
deserted by anti-slavery men, 302; 
proposes Compromise of 1850, 314 ; 
seeks to preserve Union by compro- 
mise, 315: Secretary of State, 320. 

Clayton, John M., Secretary of State, 
435. 

Cleveland, Grover, first administra- 
tion, 408, 410; portrait, sketch, 409; 
second administration, 413, 414. 

Cleveland, Ohio, staked out, 230. 

Cliff-dwellers, found by Coronado, 16 ; 
a remnant of Pueblo Indians, 19. 

Clifford, Nathan, Attorney General, 
322. 

Clinton, De Witt, and the Erie Canal, 
272. 

Clinton, George, governor of New 
York, 184; recommends common 
school education for New York, 213 ; 
Vice President, 2.56, 257. 

Clinton, General Sir Henry, sent to 
relieve Burgoyne, 173; ordered to 
concentrate forces at New York, 
176 ; feint against, at New York, 182; 
too late to help Cornwallis, 183. 

Clubs, political, favor French Revolu- 
tion, 222. 

Coat-of-arms, definition, xvi. 

Coal regions, 274, 275. 

Cobb, Howell, Secretary of Treasury, 
436. 



Cockburn, Admiral, burns Washing- 
ton, 247. 
Codfish, in Massachusetts House of 

Representatives, 111. 
Coffey, T. J., Attorney General (ad 
interim), 437. 

Coinage, of money in Massachusetts, 
64; decimal, invented by Jefferson, 
155 ; free, 416. 

Coleman, Norman J., Secretary of 
Agriculture, 441. 

Colfax, Schuyler, Vice President, 438. 

Collamer, Jacob, Postmaster General, 
435. 

Colonies, English, see English Colonies. 

Colonization Society, 331. 

Colorado, part of the Mexican cession, 
306; added to Union, 398. 

Colorado River, Grand Canon of, dis- 
covered by Coronado, 16. 

Columbia River, reached by Lewis and 
Clarke, 234 ; discovered by Captain 
Gray, 309. 

Columbia, S.C; Sherman captures, 
382. 

Columbus, Bartholomew, represents 
his brother's interests in England, 
3 ; makes map showing continent of 
America, 12. 

Columbus, Christopher, birth of, early 
interest in maps and charts, 1 ; his 
purpose to sail west to Asia, 1 ; goes 
to Lisbon, 2; inspired by travels of 
Marco Polo, 2; tries to induce King 
of Portugal to aid him, 3; is de- 
ceived, 3; seeks Ferdinand and 
Isabella, 3 ; finds friends at La 
Rabida, 5; Isabella convinced, 5; 
agreement of Ferdinand and Isabella 
with, 6 ; fleet of, 6 ; sails from Palos, 
7 ; touches and leaves Canary Islands, 
7 ; incidents and terrors of voyage, 
7, 8; plots against, 9; falsifies reck- 
onings, 9 ; signs of land, 9 ; end of 
voyage and landing, 9 ; portrait and 
personal api^earance, 10; sails back 
to Spain, 11 ; honor paid to, 11 ; 
coat-of-arms of, 11 ; other voyages, 
12 ; sets foot on South America, 12 ; 
dies in poverty, 12 ; descendant of, 
visits United States in 1893, 12. 

Columbus, Diego, son of Christopher, 
page to Isabella, 5. 

Commissioner of Patents, first ap- 
pointed, 270. 

Committee of Secret Correspondence, 
160. 

Committees of Correspondence, 138, 
141. 

Commonwealth, English, 61, 62. 



GENERAL INDEX. 



503 



Commonwealths, 07. 

Compact iu the Mayflower, 49; text, 
4()7. • 

Compromise of 1850, 314 ; provisions 
of, 315; results, 315; supposed to 
have repealed Missouri Compromise, 
339. 

Compromise tarifif, Clay's, 294. 

Concord, Mass., military stores at, 142 ; 
fight of April 19, 143 ; result of bat- 
tle, 144. 

Concord Bridge, Emerson's lines on, 
144. 

Confederate States of America, formed, 
347 ; Davis chosen President, 348 ; be- 
gin to seize Federal property, 348 ; 
open attack on United States, 353 ; 
wavering States join, 354 ; Richmond 
becomes capital of, 355 ; look to Eu- 
rope for help, 360, 361 ; England does 
not recognize independence of, 361 ; 
sympathy for, in England, 361 ; come 
to an end, 384; plan for recognizing 
their existence in the Union, 387, 388. 

Confederation of the States, recom- 
mended, 159; Articles of, 159; first 
step to real union, 160; lack of 
money, 174; States relinquish title 
of Western lands to, 188; a nation 
forming from, 189 ; failure of, 191 ; 
greater authority needed, 191. 

Congo River, 451. 

Congregational church, early predomi- 
nance of, 113. 

Congress of the United States, first, 
meets in New York, 202; attempts 
to forbid right of petition, 301; de- 
clares war with Mexico, 304 ; contest 
in, over Kansas, 341 ; seeks concilia- 
tion between North and South, 350 ; 
financial legislation during Civil 
War, 374, 375 ; passes bills over 
Johnson's vetoes, 389, 390 ; all seced- 
ing States again represented in, 392 ; 
important acts of, 396 ; divisions of, 
429; functions of, 478-482; powers 
of, 482, 483. See also Continental 
Congress. 

Congress, frigate, surrenders to Mer- 
rimac, 366. 

Congress of the Confederation, holds 
sessions in New York, 202. 

Connecticut, meaning of name, 39; 
settlement of, 56 ;" General Court 
formed, 56 ; three colonies within, 
56; Dutch crowded out of, 62, 63; 
charter disappears, 64, 65 ; cut up 
into little towns, 115; slow in re- 
nouncing royal charter, 154; re- 
serves Western Reserve, 230. 



Connecticut River, trading posts on, 
36; patent to lands on, 56. 

Conrad, Charles M., Secretary of War, 
435. 

Constantinople, captured by Turks, 2; 
scholarship driven from, 449. 

Constitution of the United States, 
adoption, 192; discussion over, 193; 
ratification, 194; strengthens the 
Union, 194 ; to be interpreted by Su- 
preme Court, 204 ; amendments in- 
frequent, 204 ; Bills of Rights added 
as amendments, 205 ; apportionment 
of representatives in, 280, 281 ; pro- 
tects rights of slaveholders, 315; 
amendments to, 389, 390 ; supremacy 
of, 489; ratification of, 489; text, 
478-494. 

Constitution, frigate, fights with Guer- 
riere and Java, 245 ; called " Old 
Ironsides," 245; Dr. Holmes com- 
memorates, 245; wins battle of the 
Thames, 246. 

Constitutional convention, 191 ; adopts 
Constitution, 192. 

Constitutional-Union party, nominates 
Bell, 344. 

Continental, significance of the word, 
146. 

Continental army, see American army. 

Continental congress, first, 141 ; sec- 
ond, not committed to separation 
from England, 145 ; assumes con- 
trol of American army, 146 ; advises 
formation of States, 153; advises 
State constitutions, 154 ; adopts 
Declaration of Independence, 155; 
draws up Articles of Confederation, 
159; sends commissioners abroad, 
160; leaves Philadelphia, 172; im- 
paired credit of, 174 ; rebukes Con- 
way Cabal, 175 ; financial stress of, 
177; issues letters of marque, 178; 
methods of raising money, 187 ; falls 
into disrepute, 191. 

Continental currency, low in value, 
187; cut of specimen, 188; made re- 
deemable by government, 205. 

Contraband of war, negroes declared, 
360. 

Contreras, Mexico, battle of, 306. 

Conway Cabal against Washington, 
175. 

Cooper, James Fenimore, 332. 

Cooper, Peter, 274. 

Cooper Union, 274. 

Corbett, Sergeant Boston, shoots Lin- 
coln's assassin, 384. 

Corinth, Miss., Confederates driven 
back to, 363, 364. 



504 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Cornwallis, Lord, outwitted at Prince- 
ton, 169 ; defeats Gates, 180 ; trapped 
at Yorktown, 182; surrenders, 183. 

Coronado's expedition, 16. 

Cortez, Hernando, conquers Mexico, 
15; portrait, 17. 

Corwin, Thomas, Secretary of Treas- 
ury, 435. 

Cotton, Rev. John, 53. 

Cotton, 210; cotton gin, invented, 211; 
manufacture of, 211, 212. 

Cotton bales, used for barricades, 
251. 

Cotton spinners, English, sympathize 
with the Union, 362. 

Court-martial, definition, 164. 

Cowpens, battle of, 181. 

Cox, Jacob Dolson, Secretary of In- 
terior, 4.38. 

Craigie House, Cambridge, 114. 

Crawford, George W., Secretary of 
War, 435. 

Crawford, William H., Secretary of 
War, 257 ; Secretary of Treasury, 
319. 

Crazy Horse, 401. 

Creek Indians, 23 ; arm against Ameri- 
cans, 247 ; part with much territory, 
go West, 264. 

Creswell, John A. J., Postmaster Gen- 
eral, 438, 439. 

Crime, trial for, 490. 

Crittenden, John J., Attorney General, 
322, 435. 

Cromwell, Oliver, becomes Lord Pro- 
tector, 61 ; Commonwealth ends at 
his death, 62. 

Crown Point, taken by Amherst, 96 ; 
capture of, by Ethan Allen, 149; 
map, 170. 

Crowninshield, Benjamin W., Secre- 
tary of Navy, 257, 319. 

Crowninshield, Jacob, Secretary of 
Navy, 256. 

Cruisers, Confederate, carrying Brit- 
ish flag, 361. 

Crusades, 448, 449; one to be fitted 
out by Columbus, 6. 

Cuba, Columbus coasts by, 11; effort 
for purchase of, 341 ; gains indepen- 
dence, 416-420. 

Cumberland, the, destroyed by Merri- 
mac, 366. 

Currency, tobacco used for, 80 ; con- 
tinental, depreciation of, 177 ; during 
war for the Union, 374. 

Cushing, Caleb, Attorney General, 
436. 

Cushing, Lieutenant, blows up the 
Albemarle, 380. 



Custer, General, sketch, 400; portrait, 

401 ; massacred, 401. 
Cutler, Manasseh, 231. 

Dallas, Alexander J., Secretary of 
Treasury, 257. 

Dallas, George Mifflin, Vice President, 
322. 

Dare, Virginia, first American-born 
English child, 43. 

Davis, Jefferson, chosen President of 
Confederate States, 348 ; portrait, 
sketch, 348; training of, 353; flies 
from Richmond, 383; captured, 384; 
later years, 384 ; Secretary of War, 
436. 

Dawes, Henry L., introduces bill to 
allot lands to Indians, 408. 

Dearborn, General Henry, 243; Secre- 
tary of War, 256. 

Debt, national, 402, 403, 489; at close 
of Revolution, 187; Hamilton's 
scheme for, 205 ; paid off, 295 ; be- 
tween States, hard to collect, 190; 
of States, to be assumed by govern- 
ment, 205, 206. 

Decatur, Stephen, exploit of, 237 ; cap- 
tures Macedonian, 245; establishes 
freedom of American commerce, 
252. 

Decimal coinage, invented by Jeffer- 
son, 155. 

Declaration of Independence, written 
mainly by Jefferson, 155; leading 
points, 155 ; agreed to on July 4, 
1776, 156; proclaimed, 157; celebra- 
tion since, 157 ; popular in France, 
161 ; as now read, 163; text of, 467- 
471. 

Deerfield, Mass., attack on, 91. 

Delano, Columbus, Secretary of In- 
terior, 4;38, 439. 

Delaware, Lord, made governor of 
Virginia, 491. 

Delaware, set off from Pennsylvania, 
76, 78; first to ratify Constitution, 
193. 

Delaware Indians, at peace with 
Friends, 76. 

Delaware River, explored, 36; colony 
on, 37; Maryland's claim to settle- 
ments on, 78 ; shores of, thickly 
settled, 117 ; Washington crosses, 
167 ; recrosses, 169. 

Delft Haven, Separatists sail from, 49. 

Demarcation, line of, 13. 

Democratic national convention of 
18()0, 344. 

Democratic-Republican party, 226 ; op- 
poses Alien and Sedition Laws, 227 ; 



GENERAL INDEX. 



505 



and passes resolutions against them, 
228 ; no longer opposed to national 
assertion, 2(52. 

Democratic party, the party of the 
people, 289. 

Dennison, William, Postmaster Gen- 
eral, 437. 

Derne, Tripoli, captured, 237. 

Detroit, Hull surrenders, 243; early 
military colony at, 297. 

Devens, Charles, Attorney General, 
439. 

Dexter, Samuel, Secretary of Treasury, 
Secretary of War, 256. 

Dickerson, Mahlon, Secretary of Navy, 
321. 

Dickinson, Don M., Postmaster Gen- 
eral, 440. 

Dickinson, John, advises more solid 
confederation, 155. 

Dinwiddle, Governor, sends AVashing- 
ton to reconnoiter, 92. 

Direct tax, definition, 123. 

Dismal Swamp, 287. 

Dissenters, definition, 69; persecute 
Quakers, 70. 

District of Columbia, petitions con- 
cerning slavery in, 301 : slave trade 
abolished in, 315; political status, 
428. 

Dix, John A., Secretary of Treasury, 
436. 

Dobbin, John C, Secretary of Navy, 

mi. 

Dock Square, Boston, 137. 

Dorchester, Mass., 53. 

Dorchester Heights, Boston, 151. 

Douglas, Stephen Arnold, introduces 
Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 339; nomi- 
nated for President, 344; debates 
with Lincoln, 352. 

Dover, N.H., settled, 59. 

Drake, Sir Francis, circumnavigates 
the globe, 41 ; portrait, 41. 

Dred Scott decision, 342. 

Duane, William J., Secretary of Treas- 
ury, 320. 

Duer, William, loyalty to Washington, 
175. 

Dutch, enterprise of, 34 ; settle New 
Netherland, 3<) ; invade New 
Sweden, 37 ; build fort near Hart- 
ford, 56; driven from site of Say- 
brook, 56; dispossessed of New 
Netherland, 62, 63; lose settlements 
in Delaware, 78; life of, in colonial 
New York, 115. 

Duties, on colonial imports and ex- 
ports, 127 ; on imports, for revenue, 
206. See also Tariff; Taxation. 



Eads, Captain J. B., engineering works 
on Mississippi, 24i); his bridge at 
St. Louis, 283. 

Early, (General, raid into Maryland 
and Pennsylvania, 379 ; defeated at 
Winchester, 380. 

East India Company, engages Hudson 
to find shorter route, 34, 35 ; offers 
to pay English tax on tea in America, 
139 ; attempts to land tea in Boston, 
139, 140. 

East Indies, a new route to, sought by 
Portuguese, 2 ; straight course to, 
thought to have been found by 
Columbus, 11 ; first reached by Ma- 
gellan sailing westward, 14; short 
passage to, discredited by Verra- 
zano, 27 ; commerce of Dutch with, 
34; English Avish to find passage to, 
41 ; luxuries from, in early New 
York, 115. 

East River Bridge, completed, 404. 

Eaton, John H., Secretary of War, 320. 

Edison, Thomas Alva, portrait, sketch, 
399. 

Edmunds, George F., 207; pi-oposes 
bill against polygamy, 404, 405. 

Education, early history of, in United 
States, 212,213; societies formed to 
promote, 331. See also Schools. 

Etfigy, definition, 123; king's officers 
burned in, 132. 

El Dorado, 308 ; California thought to 
be, 312. 

Election of 1876, contested, 401. 

Electoral Commission, 401. 

Electricity, inventions in, 325; appli- 
cations of, 400. 

Eliot, Rev. John, apostle to the In- 
dians, 59. 

Elizabeth, Queen of England, Vir- 
ginia named for, 42. 

Elkins, Stephen B., Secretary of War, 
441. 

Elkton, Howe lands army at, 172. 

Emancipation Proclamation, 375. 

Embargo Act, provisions of, 239 ; be- 
comes unpopular, 239. 

Emerson, Ralph Waldo, his lines on 
Concord Bridge, quoted, 144; por- 
trait, sketch, 334. 

Emigrant Aid Society, 345. 

Endicott, William C, Secretary of 
War, 440. 

England, Columbus intends to seek aid 
from, 5; intent on finding new way 
to India, 41 ; sends ventures to Amer- 
ica, 41-59; plans for sending poor 
into Virginia, 48; Puritan Common- 
wealth in, 61, 62; benefit of Naviga- 



50G 



GENERAL INDEX. 



■ tion Acts to, G2 ; war with Holland 
and Spain, (i'2; takes jjossession 
of New Netherland, 63 ; commerce 
with colonies, 110; colonists grow- 
ing apart from customs of, 125 ; 
power of parties in, 126; restricts 
trade and manufactures in colonies, 
127 ; enacts Writs of Assistance, 128 ; 
passes Stamp Act, 130; effect of 
Stamp Act in, 133; effect of Bui*- 
goyne's surrender in, 173 ; declares 
war on France, 173 ; concludes treaty 
of peace with United States, 184; 
seeks control of commerce with 
States after Revolution, 189; re- 
fuses to abandon Western posts, 190 ; 
cotton interest in, 211, 212; policy 
of, to restrict population to Atlan- 
tic coast, 215; war with French 
Republic, 222; claims right of search, 
223; Jay's treaty witli,"223, 224; 
Napoleon aims to destroy commerce 
of, 238; issues Order in Council, 
238 ; impresses American seamen, 
238, 239 ; renews seizures of vessels 
and men, 241 ; United States de- 
clares war on, 242 ; defeated at New 
Orleans, 251 ; signs treaty of Ghent, 
251; alarmed at Holy Alliance, 2<)(); 
claims on Pacific coast, 30;*; pro- 
claims neutrality in war for the 
Union, 3f)l ; demands Mason and 
Slidell, 361 ; attitude towards Union, 
362; concludes treaty of Washing- 
ton, 394, 395; dispute with Ven- 
ezuela, 414 ; poor and idle in, find 
opportunity in America, 456. 
English Colonies, trade restricted by 
Navigation Acts, 62 ; charters re- 
voked by James H., 64, 65 ; differ- 
ences between French America and, 
88; suspicious of French, and con- 
temptuous of Indians, 89 ; hold con- 
gress at Albany to resist French, 92 ; 
learn to rely on their own military 
strength, 93; almost supreme in 
North America, 99; situation, 109; 
commerce, population, 110; life and 
travel in, 123; newspapers in, 124; 
plans for union among, 123, 124; 
reasons for and against union, 125 ; 
political liberty in, 125, 126; treat- 
ment of, by England, restriction of 
trade and manufactures, 127 ; smug- 
gling in, 128 ; Writs of Assistance 
obnoxious to, 128, 129 ; object to tax- 
ation without representation, 129; 
make resistance to Stamp Act, 130 ; 
call the Stamp Act Congress of 1765, 
hostile attitude to English goods, 



132 ; joy at repeal of Stamp Act, 134 ; 
form into States, 153. 

English language, common speech of 
colonies, 110. 

Enterprise, steamer, goes to India, 273. 

Envoy Extraordinary, 223. 

Era of Good Feeling, 2(i2. 

Ericsson, Captain John, inventor of the 
Monitor, .3()7 ; portrait, sketch, 367. 

Erie Canal, 272. 

Europe, dependence of America upon, 
221 ; wars of Napoleon in, 236 ; effect 
of these wars on American com- 
merce, 238, 239; admits equal right 
on the seas to United States, 252 ; 
United States becomes independent 
of, 261 ; attitude of Monroe Doctrine 
toward, 267; commercial relations 
with South, 361 ; religious changes 
in, affect America, 454 ; economic 
changes in, 455, 456. 

Eustis, William, Secretary of War, 
257. 

Evarts, William M., Attorney General, 
438; Secretary of State, 43:). 

Everett, Edward, Secretary of State, 
435. 

Ewing, Thomas, Secretary of Treasury, 
322 ; Secretary of Interior, 4o5. 

Executive Department, 484-486. 

Expeditions, government, 326. 

Fairchild, Charles S., Secretary of 
Treasury, 440. 

Falmouth, Me. (now Portland) , burned 
by British, 149. 

Faneuil, Peter, 113. 

Faneuil Hall, town meetings held in, 
113 ; cut, 114 ; lauding of tea opposed 
in, 139, 140. 

Farewell Address, AVashiugton's, in- 
junctions in, 225, 226. 

Farmers, hostile to patroons, 116. 

Farming, primitive, 20i», 210. 

Farragut, Admiral , takes New Orleans, 
365; sketch, 365; portrait, 3G6; en- 
ters Mobile Bay, 380. 

Federal Hall, New York, Washington 
takes oath of office in, 202. 

Federalist, the, discusses new Consti- 
tution, 193. 

Federalist party, favors central gov- 
ernment, 205 ; distrustful of French 
Revolution, 222; passes Alien and 
Sedition Laws, 227 ; waning power 
of, 230 ; accused of plotting secession, 
241; in New England, opposes War 
of 1812, 242; at*^ Hartford Conven- 
tion, 251; becomes unpopular, 261, 
262. 



GENERAL INDEX, 



507 



Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, 
Columbus seeks aid from, 3; agree- 
ment of, with Columbus in event of 
success, G ; pay honor to Columbus, 
11. 

Fernando Po Island, 451. 

Field, Cyrus, 397. 

" Fifty-four forty or fight," political 
cry, 311. 

Filibustering Expedition, Walker's, 
341. 

Fillmore, Millard, succeeds Taylor as 
President, 307 ; sketch, 324 ; lays 
corner stone of new capitol, 324 ; 
portrait, 325; Vice President, 435. 

Finance, national, during period of 
war for the Union, 274, 275. 

Fiords, 446. 

Firearms, sale of, to Indians forbidden, 
60. 

Firelands, 231. 

Fish, Hamilton, Secretary of State, 
438. 

Fisheries, 110; early importance of, 
29 ; English colonies want control of, 
89 ; source of wealth to Massachu- 
setts colony, 111 ; off the United 
States, 348, 349. 

Fishing Banks, 27 ; rights on, 184. 

Five Nations, 23. 

Flag, adopted for American army, 
151 ; adoption of present form, 
159. 

Florida, touched by Ponce de Leon, 
14 ; country bordering on Gulf of 
Mexico once called, 15; only one 
settlement of Spanish in, 16; unsuc- 
cessful attempt of Huguenots to 
settle in, 28; given up*by Spain, 99, 
265, 266 ; Jackson carries Seminole 
War into, 264, 265 ; only territory 
admissible as slave State, 298; ad- 
mitted to Union, 303. 

Floyd, John B., Secretary of War, 4.36. 

Folger, Charles J., Secretary of Treas- 
ury, 440. 

Food, of colonists, 112, 

Fool's gold, 47. 

Foote, Admiral, 363; captures Island 
Number Ten, 365. 

Foreign oflticers in Continental army, 
jealousy of, 161. 

Forests in the United States, 462. 

Forsyth, John, Secretary of State, 320, 
321. 

Fort Bowyer, 250. 

Fort Caroline, 38. 

Fort Christina, near present site of 
Wilmington, Del., 37. 

Fort Dearborn, 283. 
2k 



Fort Donelson, captured by Grant, 
3()2, 363. 

Fort Du Quesne, begun by English, 
finished by French, i)2; taken by 
English and renamed Fort Pitt, 96. 

Fort Erie, besieged by British, 248; 
destroyed by Americans, 248. 

Fort Frontenac, destroyed, 9(5. 

Fort Henry, captured, 361, 362. 

Fort Laramie, 312. 

Fort Lee, abandoned, 167. 

Fort McHenry, British repulsed at, 249. 

Fort Mackinaw, captured by British, 
243; Americans fail to take, 247. 

Fort Maiden, Hull demands surrender 
of, 243 ; Harrison moves on, 246. 

Fort Meigs, 246. 

Fort Miami, 32. 

Fort Mimms, captured by Creeks, 247. 

Fort Moultrie, 349. 

Fort Necessity, 101. 

Fort Niagara, captured, 96. 

Fort Orange, on present site of Al- 
bany, 35, 36; becomes Albany, 63. 

Fort Pickens, refuses to surrender, 
349. 

Fort Pillow, abandoned by Confeder- 
ates, 3<55. 

Fort Pitt, Fort Du Quesne renamed as, 
96. 

Fort St. Louis, plans for, on Illinois 
River, 33. 

Fort Stanwix, 171 ; treaty of, gives 
westward impulse, 215. 

Fort Stephenson, 246. 

Fort Sumter, evacuation demanded, 
349; attack on, 353; surrender of, 
354 ; demolished by Union guns, 382 ; 
flag again raised over, 383. 

Fort Ticonderoga, captured, 149. 

Fort Wagner, 375. 

Fort Washington, captured, 167. 

Forts, chain of, projected by La Salle, 
32, 33 ; scarce in America, 165 ; Eng- 
lish, on Mississippi, captured, 178; 
seizure of Federal, by Confederacy, 
348, 349. 

Forward, Walter, Secretary of Treas- 
ury, 322. 

Foster, Charles, Secretary of Treas- 
ury, 441. 

Foster, John W., Secretary of State, 
441. 

Fourth of July, 156, 157 ; Adams and 
Jefferson die on, 285. 

Fox, George, teachings of, 69, 70. 

France, Columbus intends to seek aid 
from, (5; fishermen from, visit coast 
of America, 27 ; King of, sends Ver- 
razano and Cartier to America, 27, 



508 



GENERAL I^DEX. 



28; takes possession of and settles 
Canada, 28, 29 ; intiuence on Indians 
through missions and soldiers, 30; 
Mississippi Valley taken possession 
of for, 32; aids La Salle, 33; gives 
up Canada and certain other posses- 
sions in America, 99 ; makes Florida 
over to Spain, 99; United States de- 
sires aid of, 160, 161; Franklin a 
hero in, 161; formal alliance with, 
173; English declares war on, 173; 
policy to recover Mississippi Valley, 
177 ; interest concerning United 
States in, 221; Republic declares 
war with England, 222; wishes aid 
of United States, 223; displeased 
with Jay's treaty, 226 ; seizes Ameri- 
can vessels, 226 ; Adams sends en- 
voys to, 226; they are ordered to 
leave, 227 ; United States prepares 
for war against, 227 ; new embassy 
to, and treaty with, 228; Louisiana 
ceded to, by Spain, 232 ; sells Louisi- 
ana to United States, 233 ; pro- 
claims neutrality in Civil War, 
361. 

Francis I. of France, sends out Verra- 
zano, 27. 

Francis, David R., Secretary of In- 
terior, 442. 

Franklin, Benjamin, his services to 
Philadelphia,' 117, 118; sketch, 117, 
118; portrait, 119; principal author 
of Albany Plan of Union, 124; opin- 
ion of Stamp Act, 133; on cost of 
Revolution to England, 151 ; anec- 
dote of, 157 ; commissioner to 
France, 161 ; signs treaty of peace, 
184; efforts for closer union of 
States, 192. 

Franklin, James, brother of Benjamin, 
118. 

Franklin, Sir John, Kane's search for, 
338 ; sketch of, 338. 

Franklin, State of, 190. 

Franklin stove, 118. 

Eraser's River, 310. 

Frederica, Ga., threatened by Spanish 
fleet, 86. 

Frederick the Great, 96, 161. 

Fredericksburg, Burnside defeated at, 
372. 

Free coinage, 416. 

Free Soil party, formed, 307. 

Free trade, 277. 

Freedmen, legislation for, 389, 390; 
evil political influence over, 391. 

Freedmen's Bureau, 389. 

Frelinghuysen, Frederick T., Secre- 
tary of State, 440. 



Fremont, Captain John C, marches to 
Monterey, 305; expeditions of, 326; 
candidate of Republican party, 342; 
declares certain slaves freed , 360 ; 
repulsed by Stonewall Jackson, 370. 

French in Acadia, mostly peaceable, 
94 ; all families removed by English, 
95. 

French America, 26-33; English not 
friendly to, 88, 89; military superi- 
ority to English, 90; encroaches on 
Ohio Company, 92. 

French and Indian War, begins, 92, 
93 ; in Acadia, 94 ; part of Seven 
Years' War, 95, 96; Pitt's policy as 
to, 96 ; campaigns, 96 ; capture of 
Quebec, 97-99; peace, 99; privateer- 
ing in New England during, 115; 
Franklin furnishes supplies during, 
118 ; adds to debt of England, 128. 

French fleet, goes to Newport, 176; 
scattered by storm, 177; helps trap 
Cornwallis, 182. 

French Revolution, enthusiasm for, in 
United States, 222. 

Frenchtown, 246. 

Friends, Society of, 117; origin of, 70; 
persecuted in England and New Eng- 
land, 70 ; settles New Jersey, 72 ; and 
Pennsylvania, under Penn, 73 ; given 
rights of Englishmen in Maryland, 
78; expels General Greene, 181. 

Frontiersmen, 214, 215 ; in the Revolu- 
tion, 178. 

Fugitive Slave Law, provisions of, 315 ; 
Seward willing to enforce, 350. 

Fugitive slaves, 281. 

Fulton, Robert, invents steamboat, 
273; portrait, 273. 

Fur trade, tempts explorers, 29; fur 
traders settle Manhattan Island, 35 ; 
St. Louis the center of Western, 310., 

Gadsden, General James, agent in 
Mesilla Valley purchase, 306. 

Gage, General, refuses to recognize 
Massachusetts legislature, 141 ; forti- 
fies Boston, 142; plans to destroy 
stores at Concord, 142; succeeded 
by Howe, 151. 

Gage, Lyman J., Secretary of Treas- 
ury, 442. 

Gates, General Horatio, Burgoyne 
surrenders to, 173; supersedes 
Schuyler, 173; Conway Cabal to 
displace Washington by, 175 ; de- 
feated at Camden, S.C., 180; suc- 
ceeded by Greene, 181. 

Galena, 111., 282; Grant raises volun- 
teers in, 363. 



GENERAL INDEX. 



509 



Gallatin, Albert, Secretary of Treas- 
ury, 25(), 257. 

Garfield, James Abram, portrait, 403; 
sketch, 403, 404; assassination of, 
404. 

Garland, Augustus H., Attorney Gen- 
eral, 440. 

Garrison, William Lloyd, sketch, 299; 
mobbed, 299; attacks slavery, 300; 
statue of, 300. 

Gary, James A., Postmaster General, 
442. 

Genet, Edmond Charles, French min- 
ister, issues commission to priva- 
teers, 223; recalled, 223. 

Geneva Arbitration, 395. 

Genoa, birthplace of Columbus, 1 ; 
rich from commerce with Asia, 2; 
refuses to aid Columbus, 3. 

George III., policy of, 120 ; maintains 
right to tax colonies, 139 ; determines 
to crush the Revolution, 150; tyran- 
nical acts, 155 ; hires Hessians to 
fight in America, 1(55 ; his hatred for 
Chatham, 173; agrees to treaty of 
peace, 184. 

Georgia, named for George II., 84; 
founded by Oglethorpe, 85 ; growth 
of, 85, 80 ; reverts to the crown, 86 ; 
not represented in First Continental 
Congress, 141 ; British j)ossess, 177 ; 
does not at once relinquish public 
lands, 188; Indians in, 287. 

Germans, in Pennsylvania, 73, 117 ; 
settle in South Carolina, 84 ; in 
Georgia, 85. 

Germantown, Pa., settled, 73; battle 
of, 172. 

Germany, emigration from, 328, 329. 

Gerry, Elbridge, envoy to France, 226 ; 
Vice President, 257. 

Gettysburg, battle of, .377; Lincoln's 
speech at National Cemetery, 4.30; 
text of speech, 431. 

Ghent, treaty of, 251. 

Gibbs, General, British general at 
New Orleans, mortally wounded, 251. 

Gila River, becomes northern boundary 
of Mexico, 306. 

Gilmer, Thomas W., Secretary of 
Navy, 322. 

Gilpin, Henry D., Attorney General, 
321. 

Globe, early scholars' knowledge of, 1 ; 
Behaim's, 7, 8 ; world first known to 

Gloucester, Va., 182, 183. 

Glover, General John, maneuvers 

- American army over the Delaware, 



Goff, Nathan, Secretary of Navy, 439. 

Gold, trinkets of, taken to Spain by 
Columbus, 11 ; an object of Spanish 
conquests, 15; London Company's 
search for, 4(5 ; pyrites mistaken for, 
47; discovery of, in California, 312; 
eagerly sought by early explorers, 
453. 

Gold Coast, discovered, 451. 

Gold standard, 416. 

Goods, better class imported, 271 ; im- 
provement of American, 272. 

Gorges, Sir Ferdinaudo, forms settle- 
ments in New Hampshire and Maine, 
59; title of, to Maine bought by 
Massachusetts, 284. 

Gosnold, Bartholomew, names Cape 
Cod, 44; forms Virginia Company, 
44. 

Gosport Navy Yard, 365, 367. 

Graham, George, Secretary of War, 
319. 

Graham, William A., Secretary of 
Navy, 435. 

Grenada, surrendered by Moors, 5. 

Grand Army of the Republic, 385. 

Granger, Francis, Postmaster General, 
322. 

Grangers, Order of, 396. 

Grant, Jesse Root, father of General 
Grant, 363, 3(34. 

Grant, General Ulysses S., takes Forts 
Henry and Donelson, 3(52, 363; 
sketch, 3(52, 3(53; portrait, 364; takes 
Vicksburg, 377 ; in command of 
armies of the West, then commander- 
in-chief, 378; moves on Richmond, 
378 ; enters Petersburg defenses, 
382; Lee surrenders to, 383; admin- 
istration of, 392-396; later years, 
death, 40(5; cut of tomb, 407 ; Secre- 
tary of War {ad interini), 437. 

Grasse, Count de, helps trap Corn- 
wallis, 182. 

Gray, Captain Robert, discovers 
Columbia River, 309. 

Great American Desert, 316. 

Great Britain, see England. 

Great Commoner, see Pitt, William. 

Great Harry, famous English ship, 
cut of, 40. 

Great Khan of Asia, letter given to 
Columbus for, 6. 

Great Lakes, 4(53; explored by La 
Salle, 32 ; held by Great Britain till 
1795, 214 : as a bond of peace, 2()3. 

Great Muddy River, a name for Mis- 
souri River, 283. 

Great West, see West. 

Greeley, Horace, 373. 



510 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Green Bay, Wis., readied by Nicolet, 31. 

Green Mountain Boys, 207. 

" Greeubaciis," treasury notes called, 

375. 
Greene, General Natlianael, succeeds 

Gates 181 ; Southern campaign of 

(1781), 181; portrait, 181; sketch, 

181; defeated, 182; Whitney invents 

cotton gin at home of widow of, 

'211. 
Greenland, settlements by Norsemen 

in, 447. 
Gresham, Walter Q., Secretary of 

Treasury, Postmaster General, 440; 

Secretary of State, 441, 
Gritifin's Wharf, Boston, scene of Tea 

Party, 140. 
Griswold, Roger, Acting Secretary of 

War, 256. 
Grundy, Felix, Attorney General, 321. 
Guilford Court House, Greene defeated 

at, 182. 
Gulf of St. Lawrence, discovered by 

Cartier, 28. 
Guthrie, James, Secretary of Treasury, 

4:36. 
Guthrie, Oklahoma, rapidly settled, 

412. 

Hale, Captain Nathan, hanged as spy, 
166. 

Halifax, founded, 91; menaced by 
Acadians, 94. 

Hall, N. K., Postmaster General, 435. 

Hamilton, British colonel, 178. 

Hamilton, Alexander, defends Consti- 
tution, 193; portrait, sketch, 193; 
influence in New York, 194; first 
Secretary of the Treasury, 202 ; his 
financial ability, 203; scheme for 
national debt, 205 ; meets opposition 
to this scheme, 206; proposes United 
States Bank, 206; plan for revenue, 
206; defends Jay's treaty, 224; 
killed in duel with Burr, 234 ; Secre- 
tary of Treasury, 255 ; urges pro- 
tective tarife, 270. 

Hamilton, Paul, Secretary of Navy, 
257. 

Hamlin, Hannibal, elected Vice Presi- 
dent, 344, 437. 

Hampton, Industrial and Normal 
School at, 391. 

Hampton Roads, fight of Monitor and 
Merrimac in, 3(56, 3()7. 

Hancock, John, signs Declaration of 
Independence, 156 ; his bold signa- 
ture, 157; portrait, 157. 

Happy Hunting Grounds, 24. 

Harbors of the United States, 349. 



Harlan, James, Secretary of Interior, 

437. 
Harmon, Judson, Attorney General, 

441. 
Harper's Ferry, John Brown raids, 

343. 
Harris, Townsend, first envoy to 

Japan, 326. 
Harrison, Benjamin, administration, 

410-413; portrait, sketch, 411. 
Harrison, William Henry, defeats 

Tecumseh, 241 ; campaign in War of 

1812, 246; portrait, 300; died a 

month after becoming President, 

301; sketch, 301, 302. 
Harrison's Landing, Union army 

forced back to, 370. 
Hartford, Dutch build fort near, 56; 

disappearance of charter at, 64, 65. 
Hartford Convention, 251. 
Harvard College, founded, 55 ; hall for 

Indians connected with, 59; social 

rank in, 113. 
Hatton, Frank, Postmaster General, 

440. 
Hawaiian Islands annexed, 422. 
Hawthorne, Nathaniel, sketch, 332, ' 

333; portrait, 333. 
Hayes, Rutherford B., elected Presi- 
dent, 401 ; withdraws Federal troops 

from South, 402; portrait, sketch, 

402. 
Hayne, Robert Young, defends State 

sovereignty, 291. 
Hayti, named Hispaniola by Columbus, 

11. 
Hendricks, Thomas A., 440 ; died while 

Vice President, 408. 
Hennepin, Louis, discovers Niagara 

Falls, 32. 
Henrietta Maria, wife of Charles I., 

Maryland named in honor of, 77. 
Henry the Navigator, Prince, seeks 

route to the Indies, 2 ; his series of 

voyages, 2. 
Henry, Joseph, sketch, 325. 
Henry, Patrick, speech against taxa- 
tion, 130, 1.32; portrait, sketch, 131. 
Herbert, Hilary A., Secretary of Navy, 

441. 
Herkimer, General, killed at Oriskany, 

171. 
Hessians, hired to fight in America, 

165. 
Hispaniola, name given by Columbus 

to Hayti, 11. 
Hoar, E. Rockwood, Attorney General, 

438. 
Hobart, Garret A., Vice President, 

442. 



GENERAL INDEX. 



511 



Holland, character of, 34; Separatists 
in, 48, 41> ; wars with England, 02, 
Go. See also Dutch. 

Holmes, Dr. Oliver Wendell, 330. 

Holt, Joseph, Postmaster General, Sec- 
retary of War, 430. 

Holy Alliance, 200. 

Holy Sepulcher, 448 ; Columbus agrees 
to devote proceeds of discovery to 
rescue of, 0. 

Homestead Bill, 274. 

Honduras, ruins in, 20. 

Hood, General, defeated by Thomas, 
381. 

Hooker, General Joseph, succeeds 
Burnside, 370 ; defeated at Chancel- 
lorsville, 370. 

Hopkins, Oceanus, born in the May- 
flower, 49. 

Horses, none in America before its 
discovery, 22. 

House of Representatives, 429, 478, 
479; inci-ease of business in, 430. 

House of the Dwarf, cut of, 20. 

Houses, in colonial New York, 115. 

Houston, General Sam, promotes inde- 
pendence of Texas, 299; sketch, 
299. 

Howe, Timothy O., Postmaster Gen- 
eral, 440. 

Howe, General Sir William, sails from 
Boston, 151 ; takes army to Halifax, 
153 ; enters New York harbor, 105 ; 
wins battle of Long Island, 100; ad- 
dresses Washington as a civilian, 
100 ; captures Fort Washington, 107 ; 
cooped up, 109 ; enters Philadelphia, 
172 ; fails to relieve Burgoyne, 173 ; 
succeeded by Clinton, 170. 

Howe, Lord, 105. 

Hubbard, Samuel D., Postmaster Gen- 
eral, 435. 

Hudson, Henry, discoveries of, 35. 

Hudson's Bay Company, possessions 
of, in the Oregon Country, 310 ; suc- 
ceeds North West Fur Co., 310. 

Hudson River, discovery, 35 ; posses- 
sion of, desired by British, 105 ; in 
control of British, 107 ; Fulton's 
steamboat on, 273. 

Hudson's Bay, 35. 

Huguenots, 110 ; make unsuccessful 
settlement in Florida, 28; settle in 
South Carolina, 84 ; many reach 
America, 455. 

Hull, Captain Isaac, captures the 
Guerriere, 245. 

Hull, General William, surrenders 
Detroit, 243; sentenced to be shot, 
but pardoned, 244. 



Hunt, William H., Secretary of Navy, 

440. 
Huron Indians, persuade Champlain 

to attack Iroquois, 30. 
Hutchinson, Thomas, tribute to, 137 ; 

orders troops removed from Boston, 

138. 

Iberia, 331. 

Iberville, Sieur d', French expedition 
under, 33. 

Iceland, occupied by Norsemen, 447. 

Idaho, added to Union, 412. 

Illinois, brought under control of 
United States, 178; added to Union, 
270 ; slavery contest in, 282, 283. 

Illinois Central Railroad, 320. 

Illinois Indians, mission among, 31 ; 
help destroy Schenectady, 90. 

Illinois River, ascended by Joliet, 31 ; 
fort on, 32, 33. 

Immigration, increase of, 328; Irish, 
German, and Scandinavian, 328, 329 ; 
effect of, on labor, 330; stimulation 
of, after war for the Union, 393; 
table showing nationalities, 490. 

Impeachment of President Johnson, 
392. 

Impressment of seamen, 238, 239; con- 
tinuance of, 241. 

Independence, Paine's Common Sense 
among first arguments for, 154 ; R. 
H. Lee, moves resolution for, 154; 
Declaration of, 155-157 ; Washington 
refuses all other terms, 100 ; Amer- 
ican commissioners insist on recog- 
nition of, 184. 

Independence, Mo., Mormon settle- 
ment in, 313. 

Independence Hall, Philadelphia, 157; 
cut, 158; Constitutional Convention 
meets in, 191; cut of interior, 192. 

India, Virginia supposed to be near, 
40; cotton in, 211, 212. 

Indian names, 23. 

Indiana, brought under control of 
United States, 178; formed from 
Northwest Territory, 230 ; added to 
Union, 270; a free State, 270 ; slav- 
ery gets footing in, 282. 

Indians, reasons for name, 11 ; cliff 
dwellings of, 10 ; submit to Span- 
iards, 10 ; intermarry with Span- 
iards, 17 ; appearance, 20 ; food, 
21 ; implements, dress, houses, 
women, hunting, 22; habits, main 
groups, 23; common traits, recent 
increase, 24; Jesuit missions to, 30; 
relations with these missionaries and 
the French soldiers, 30; New Eng- 



512 



GENERAL INDEX. 



land Indians explore Mississippi Val- 
ley, 32 ; aid Jamestown colonists, 
46 ; unjustly treated by governors of 
Virginia, 48 ; disposed to be friendly 
to Pilgrims, 52; befriend Roger 
Williams, 58 ; treatment of, by Eng- 
lish, 5!), 89 ; attempts at Christianiz- 
ing, 59; protections against, GO; 
Pequot War, GO, Gl ; King Philip's 
War, 63 ; many sold into slavery, 63, 
84; to be tried by jury, 73; rights 
respected by Penu, 74 ; Penn's trea- 
ties with, 75; a cause of Bacon's 
Rebellion, 81 ; unwilling to see power 
pass from French to English, 99; 
destroy forts, 100 ; made treaty of 
peace with English, 100; in New 
York, 116; ditliculties with, cause 
various plans of union in colonies, 
124 ; incited by English garrisons 
against frontiersmen, 224; Wayne's 
victory over, 224 ; sign treaty of 
peace, 224 ; hostilities under Tecuni- 
seh, 241 ; in War of 1812, 243; United 
States deals with Indians as a nation, 
263 ; movements of tribes, 263, 264 ; 
continuance of war with, 264 ; Semi- 
nole War, 264 ; St. Louis center of 
Western trade with, 283; troubles 
with, in Georgia, 287; wronged 
by Indian agents, 400; Sioux War, 
400, 401 ; allotment of lands to, 
408. 

Indies, see East Indies ; West Indies. 

Industries, early, in United States, 
209, 210. 

Inflation period, 295. 

Ingham, Samuel D., Secretary of 
Treasury, 320. 

Intellectual life, 330, 331. 

Interdependence, of Europe and Amer- 
ica, 456. 

Interior Department, created, 324. 

Internal improvements, encouraged, 
272; favored by Whigs, 290; largely 
extended, 290. 

Interstate Commerce Act, causes which 
led to, 396 ; provisions of, 408. 

Inventions, increase of, in United 
States, 269 ; encouraged by Patent 
Office, 270. 

Iowa, added to the Union, 308. 

Ireland, immigration from, 328. 

Irish, settle in Carolinas, 84; in col- 
onial Pennsylvania, 117. 

Iron regions, 274, 275. 

Iron works, 212. 

Ironclads, 367. 

Iroquois Indians, in New York, 23, 116 ; 
Champlain persuaded to attack, 30 ; 



rendered enemies of the French, 31; 

attack La Chine, 90. 
Irrigation, in Utah, 313. 
Irving, Washington, 332. 
Isabella, of Spain, Columbus seeks aid 

of, 3; persuaded to aid Columbus, 

5,6. 
Island Number Ten, captured, 365. 

Jackson, Andrew, in command against 
the Creeks, 247 ; defensive prepa- 
rations at New Orleans, 250, 251; 
portrait, 250; wins battle of New 
Orleans, 251 ; carries Seminole War 
into Florida, 264, 265; sketch of 
life, 264, 265 ; Spain protests against, 
265 ; election of, 288 ; popularity, 
288, 289 ; as a " practical politician," 
291; opposes nullification, 294; hos- 
tile to Bank of United States, 294, 
295 ; issues specie circular, 295; 
tries to buy Texas, 298. 

Jackson, General T. J. (" Stonewall "), 
victories, 370; portrait, sketch, 370; 
joins Lee, 370 ; death, 376. 

Jalapa, Mexico, taken, 305. 

Jamaica, taken from Spain by Eng- 
land, 62. 

James I. of England, puts Raleigh to 
death, 43 ; favors Virginia Company, 
44 ; James River named for, 45 ; hos- 
tile to tobacco, 48. 

James II. of England, revokes colo- 
nial charters, 64, 65; deposed, 65. 
See also York, Duke of. 

James, Thomas L., Postmaster Gen- 
eral, 440. 

James River, named for James I. of 
England, 45; settlements thrive on, 
48. 

Jamestown, settled, 44, 45; burned, 
81. 

Japan, Columbus hoped to reach north- 
ern end of, 7 ; Columbus sure that 
he had reached, on first voyage, 11 ; 
Perry's expedition to, 326; first 
treaty with, 338. 

Java, British ship, captured, 245. 

Jay, John, signs treaty of peace, 184; 
defends Constitution, 193; sketch, 
193 ; first Chief Justice, 203 ; sent on 
mission to England, 223; forms 
treaty, 223, 224. 

Jay's treaty, 223, 224; almost causes 
war with France, 226. 

Jefferson, Thomas, Declaration of In- 
dependence mainly by, 155; brief 
sketch of, 155 : portrait, 156 ; ap- 
pointed first Secretary of State, 
202; his influence, 203; chosen Vice 



GENERAL INDEX. 



513 



President, 220; inaugurated at 
Washington, 230; popularity in- 
creased by Louisiana purchase, 233; 
reelected President, 233; arrests 
Burr's schemes, 234; favors em- 
bargo, 239; Secretary of State, Vice 
President, 255 ; deplores slavery, 
279; died on 4th of July, 285. 

Jenckes, Thomas A., a pioneer in 
civil service reform, 396. 

Jerusalem, attempts to recover, by 
Christians, 6 ; objective point of 
crusades, 448, 449. 

Jesuit missions to the Indians, 30. 

Jesuit Relations, 30. 

Jewell, Marshall, Pt)stmaster General, 
439. 

Johnson, Andrew, not in sympathy 
with Congress, 388; sketch, 388; 
portrait, 389; vetoes Freedmen's 
Bureau Bill, 389 ; vetoes Civil Rights 
Bill and Tenure of Office Bill, 390 ; 
impeachment of, 392; Vice Presi- 
dent, 437. 

Johnson, Cave, Postmaster General, 
322. 

Johnson, Reverdy, Attorney General, 
435. 

Johnson, Richard M., Vice President, 
321. 

Johnson, Dr. Samuel, a Tory, 129. 

Johnson, Sir William, urges Six Na- 
tions to join English, 92,93; keeps 
Six Nations from joining Pontiac, 
100; influence with Indians, 116. 

Johnston, General Albert Sidney, at- 
tacks Grant at Shiloh, 363; killed. 
364. 

Johnston, General J. E., in command 
of Confederate forces, 358 ; falls back 
toward Richmond, 307, '.M\H\ loses 
Fair Oaks, 368, 370; wounded, suc- 
ceeded by Lee, 370 ; pressed back to 
Atlanta, 381 ; succeeded by Hood, 
381 ; unable to check Sherman, 382; 
surrenders, 384. 

Johnstown, N.Y., 116. 

Joliet, Louis, explores Mississippi 
River, 31. . 

Jones, eJohn Paul, fights with Serapis, 
179 ; portrait, 179. 

Jones, William, Secretary of Navy, 
257. 

Judicial Department, 486, 487; divi- 
sions of, 430. 

Kalb, John, joins Continental army, 

161 ; killed; 180. 
Kane, Elisha Kent, Arctic exijedition 

of. 338. 



Kansas, part of, in Mexican cession, 
306; conflict over between free-state 
and proslavery men, .340, l^l ; war- 
fare in, 340; admitted to Union, 350. 

Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 338-340. 

Kaskaskia, mission at, 31. 

Kearney, Colonel Stephen W., invades 
New Mexico, 304. 

Kearsarge, sinks Alabama, 380. 

Keats, John, sonnet of, referred to. 
14. 

Keel, invented by Norsemen, 448. 

Kendall, Amos, Postmaster General. 
321. 

Kennedy, John P., Secretary of Navy, 
435. 

Kentucky, county of, formed, 178; 
threatens secession, 190; beginnings 
of, 215, 216. 

Kentucky Resolutions, 228. 

Key, David McK., Postmaster General, 
439. 

Key, Francis Scott, occasion of his 
" Star-Spangled Banner," 249. 

Key West, fort at, refuses to surren- 
der, 349. 

King, Horatio, Postmaster General, 
436. 

King, William R., Vice President, 436. 

King George's War, 91. 

King Philip's War, 63; Mohicans 
driven west by, 32. 

King William's War, 90, 91. 

Kingston, Canada, 32. 

Kirkwood, Samuel J., Secretary of 
Interior, 440. 

Kirtland, Ohio, Mormon settlement 
in, 313. 

Knox, General Henry, Secretary of 
War, 202, 255. 

Kosciusko, a Polish hero, joins Conti- 
nental army, 161. 

Labor, Department of, established, 
408. 

La Chine, one of La Salle's settle- 
ments, 32; massacre at, 90. 

Lafayette, Marquis de, 287 ; joins Con- 
tinental army, 161 ; friend of Wash- 
ington, 161; portrait, 162; refuses 
to join Conway cabal, 175; keeps 
Cornwallis at bay, 182; sends key 
of Bastile to Washington, 222. 

Lake Borgne, British move to, 251. 

Lake Cham plain, small naval force 
maintained on, 263. 

I>ake Erie, Perry's victory on, 246; 
early steam navigation on, 273. 

Lake Huron, reached by Champlain, 
31. 



514 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Lake Ontario, La Salle builds fort on, 
32 ; small naval force maintained on, 
263. 

Lamar, Lucius Q. C, Secretary of In- 
terior, 411. 

Lamont, Daniel S., Secretary of War, 
441. 

La Rabida, monastery of, befriends 
Columbus, 5. 

La Salle, Chevalier de, granted tract 
near Montreal, 32 ; explores Great 
Lakes, 32; navigates the Mississippi, 
32 ; claims Louisiana, 33 ; receives 
aid from French king, 33; failure 
of plans and death, 33. 

Las Casas, Spanish missionary, 454. 

Lawrence, Kansas, attack on, 340. 

Learning, revival of, 449, 450. 

Lecompton Constitution, 340. 

Lee, General Charles, captured, 168; 
suspected as a traitor, 168 ; deprived 
of command for a year, 176. 

Lee, Charles, Attorney General, 255, 
256. 

Lee, "Light Horse Harry," father of 
Robert E. Lee, 371. 

Lee, Richard Henry, submits resolu- 
tion for independence, 154. 

Lee, General Robert E., made com- 
mander of Confederate forces, 370; 
portrait, sketch, 371 ; wins at Ma- 
nassas, crosses and recrosses Po- 
tomac, 371; defeats Burnside, 372; 
defeats Hooker, 376; enters Penn- 
sylvania, 376; defeated at Gettys- 
burg, 377 ; retreats from Petersburg, 
380; surrenders at Appomattox 
Court House, 383. 

Legare, Hugh S., Secretary of State, 
321 ; Attorney General, 322. 

Legislative Department, 478-484.^ 

Lenni Lenape, definition, 69 ; Friends 
live at peace with, 76. 

Leopard, the, overhauls Chesapeake, 
239. 

Letters of marque, 178. 

Lewis and Clarke's expedition, 233, 
234. 

Lewis River, discovered, 233. 

Lexington, Mass., fight of April 19, 
142, 143; result of battle, 144. 

Leyden, Sepai-atists settle in, 48. 

Libby Prison, 386. 

Liberator, edited by Garrison, 299, 
300. 

Liberty, political, in America, 125, 126; 
Bartholdi's statue of, 408. 

Liberty Bell, 157, 163. 

Liberty Tree, Boston, 132, 133. 

Libraries, Public, 213. 



Lightning rods, invented by Franklin, 
118. 

Lincoln, Abraham, portrait, 260; first 
election of, 344 : cut of birthplace, 
351 ; early life, 351 ; political career, 
352 ; troubles awaiting him as Presi- 
dent, 353 ; calls for volunteers, 354 ; 
countermands Fremont's procla- 
mation freeing slaves, 360; issues 
Emancipation Proclamation, 375; 
reelected, 383; hopeful tone of In- 
augural Address, 383 ; visits Rich- 
mond, 383; assassination of, 383, 
384 ; eager to restore seceding States, 
388 ; speech at Gettysburg, 430, 431. 

Lincoln, Levi, Attorney General, 256. 

Lincoln, Robert T., Secretary of War, 
440. 

Lincoln-Douglas debates, 352. 

Line of Demarcation in 1494, 13. 

Lisbon, Columbus makes maps in, 2, 

Literature, American, 331-336. 

Livingston, Edward, Secretary of 
State, 320. 

Locomotives, early, 274. 

Log cabin and hard cider campaign, 
302. 

Log houses, 111. 

London Company for Virginia, 44 ; 
settles Jamestown, 45 ; colony under 
government of, 79; loses charter, 79. 

Long, John D., Secretary of Navy, 
442. 

Long Island, battle of, 165, 166. 

Long Island Sound, 56. 

Longfellow, Henry W., Craigie House 
residence of, 114 ; sketch, 334 ; por- 
trait, 335. 

Lookout Mountain, 378. 

Loudon, Adams County, Ohio, Serpent 
Mound in, 19. 

Louis XIV. of France, Mississippi 
Valley claimed in name of, 33. 

Louis XVI. of France, slow to acknowl- 
edge United States, 161 ; forms al- 
liance with United States, 173. 

Louisburg, Cape Breton, captured by 
New England expedition, 91 ; re- 
stored to French, 91 ; French fleet 
at, 95 ; taken by English, 96. 

Louisiana, claimed and so named by 
La Salle, 33; made over to Spain, 
99; Spain cedes territory to France, 
232; Napoleon sells Louisiana to 
United States, 233; exploration of, 
233; admitted to Union, 249; Mon- 
roe negotiates for purchase, 262. 

Lowell, James Russell, 336. 

Lowell, Mass., 271. 

Loyal Legion, military order of, 385. 



GENERAL INDEX. 



515 



Loyalists, 157 ; bitterness of, 158 ; 

England wants pi-operty of, restored, 

184; bitterness against, continnes, 

190. 
Loyola, Ignatius, founder of Jesuits, 

30. 
Lundy's Lane, battle of, 248. 
Lyceum, definition of, 324; popularity 

of, 331. 
Lying made punishable by Penn, 73. 
Lynch, Lieutenant, 326. 

McClellan, General George B., placed 
in command of Union forces, 358 ; 
sketch, 358, 359; advances to Ma- 
nassas, 367 ; lays siege to Yorktown, 
368; wins at Fair Oaks, 368, 370 ; in 
second battle of Manassas, 372; his 
command given to Burnside, 372. 

McClellan j Robert, Secretary of Inte- 
rior, 436. 

McClure, Captain, 41. 

McCormick, Cyrus, invents reaping 
machine, 329. 

McCrary, George W., Secretary of 
War, "439. 

McCrea, Jane, 186. 

McCulloch, Hugh, Secretary of Treas- 
ury, 437, 440. 

Macdonough, Lieutenant, repulses 
British at Plattsburg, 249. 

McDowell, General, repulsed by Jack- 
son, .370. 

Macedonian, the, captured by frigate 
United States, 245. 

McHenry, James, Secretary of War, 
255, 256. 

Machinery, early necessity for, 269; 
patents granted for, 270. 

McKenna, Joseph, Attorney General, 
442. 

McKinley, "William, election of, 414, 
41<); portrait, sketch, 415; second 
election of, 425. 

McKinley Tariff Bill, 412, 413. 

McLane, Louis, Secretary of Treasury, 
Secretary of State, 320. 

Macomb, General, repulses British at 
Plattsburg, 249. 

McVeagh, Wayne, Attorney General, 
440. 

Madison, James, defends Constitution, 
193 ; helps secure adoption of Con- 
stitution in Virginia, 204, 205 ; 
draughts Bill of Rights, 20") ; helps 
abolish religious tests, 213; draws 
Virginia Resolutions, 228 ; President, 
2.39; continues Jefferson's policy, 
2.39; portrait and sketch, 240; his 
party opposes policy of, 242 ; Secre- 



tary of State, 256; his apportion- 
ment of representatives, 280, 281. 

Magellan, first navigates Pacific, sail- 
ing westward, 14; killed, 15; his 
crew circumnavigate globe, 15. 

Magellan, Strait of, first passed, 14. 

Mails, early, 123, 124. 

Maine, meaning of name, 40; settle- 
ments begun in, 59; included in 
Massachusetts Colony, 110, 284; 
England wants to keep part of, 184 ; 
added to Union, 276; admission de- 
layed by Missouri controversy, 283- 
285; title to, 284. 

"Maine," battleship, 417. 

Manassas, second battle of, 372. 

Manhattan Island, settled by Dutch 
fur traders, 35; called New Amster- 
dam, 36. 

" Manifest destiny," a political cry, 
303. 

Manila captured, 418, 419. 

Manning, Daniel, Secretary of Treas- 
ury, 440. 

Manufactures, restrictions of colonial, 
127; stimulated by protective tariff, 
270; growth of, in New England, 
271. 

March to the sea, Sherman's, 381. 

Marcy, William L., Secretary of War, 
322 ; Secretary of State, 436. 

Marion, Francis, 179. 

Marquette, Pere, explorations with 
Joliet, 31 ; visits site of Chicago, 31. 

Marshall, James W., Postmaster Gen- 
eral, 439. 

Marshall, John, Chief Justice, portrait, 
204; sketch, 204, 205; envoy to 
France, 226 ; Secretary of State, 256. 

Maryland, founding of, 77; religious 
toleration in, 77, 78; products of, 
78; boundaries, 78, 79; Lee enters, 
372; Early's raid in, 379. 

Mason, Captain John, divides claims 
with Gorges, 59; names New Hamp- 
shire, 59. 

Mason, John Y., Secretary of Navy, 
Attorney General, 322. 

Mason and Dixon's line, 78, 79; di- 
vided the population of colonies, 
110; colonial life south of, 120. 

Mason and Slidell, Confederate com- 
missioners, seized, 361 ; surrendered 
to England, 361. 

Massachusetts, Governor and Com- 
pany of, composed of Puritans, 52 ; 
Puritans first reach, 53; early 
growth of, 55 ; General Court formed, 
56 ; accused by Williams of not hold- 
ing true titles to lands, 58 ; annoys 



516 



GENERAL II^DEX. 



Rhode Island settlements, 58 ; will 
not admit Rhode Island into league, 
i'A ; tenth of fighting men killed in 
King Philip's War, 63 ; coins money, 
64 ; loses charter, 64 ; governors a'p- 
pointed by crown, (56; new charter, 
66 ; population largely fishermen and 
mechanics, 111 ; life and domestic 
customs. 111 ; cooking, social habits, 
112 ; civil government, 113 ; country 
and town life in, 114; proposes pe- 
tition to the king, 137 ; repressive 
acts passed for regulation of govern- 
ment of, 140, 141 ; Provincial Con- 
gress formed, 141; militia companies 
in, 142; education made compulsory 
in, 212, 213; title of, to Maine, 284. 

Mayflower, sails from England, 49; 
reaches Provincetown, 49; arrives 
at Plymouth, 51 ; compact signed in, 
51 ; text of compact, 4()7. 

Mayflower, the flower, 39. 

Maynard, Horace, Postmaster Gen- 
eral, 439. 

Maximilian, in Mexico, 393, 394. 

Meade, General, portrait, sketch, 376; 
wins at Gettysburg, 377. 

Mecklenburg resolutions, 152. 

Medical school, first in country at 
Philadelphia, 120. 

Medicine men, 24. 

Mediterranean Sea, commerce on, 2, 
451 ; piracy on, 236. 

Members of Congress, 481. 

Memorial Day, 385. 

Memorial Hall, Cambridge, 385. 

Memphis, Tenn., De Soto discovers 
the Mississippi near, 16 ; surrenders, 
365. 

Meredith, William M., Secretary of 
Treasury, 435. 

Merrimacand Monitor, fight between, 
365-367. 

Mesilla Valley, bought of Mexico, 
30(i. 

Mexico, conquest of, 15 ; by Spaniards, 
becomes a Spanish province, 15 ; re- 
mains of ancient civilization in, 19; 
Burr's schemes aimed at, 234; 
boundary of, set at Sabine River, 
265, 298; becomes republic, 266 ; sup- 
posed plan to permit France to have, 
266 ; Texas declares independence 
of, 299 ; political weakness of, 303 ; 
war with, 304-306 ; paid for addi- 
tional territory by United States, 
306; attempt "of Napoleon HI. in, 
393, 394. 

Mexico, city of, approaches to, 305; 
surrenders, 306. 



Mexican War satirized in Biglow 
Papers, 336. 

Michigan, reached by Nicolet, 31; 
Vermont contributes to settlement 
of, 207 ; lost by Hull, 243 ; Harrison 
restores, 246; admitted to Union, 
297 ; early events, 297 ; first State to 
adopt Australian ballot law, 412. 

Michigan Southern Railroad, 326. 

Michili Mackinac, a center of Jesuit 
missions, 297. 

Middle colonies, life in, 116, 117. 

Militia, definition, 88; English colo- 
nies organize, in French and Indian 
War, 93. 

Miller, William H. H., Attorney Gen- 
eral, 441. 

" Millions for defense, but not one 
cent for tribute," saying by Pinck- 
ney, 227. 

Ministers, early social rank of, 112. 

Minneapolis, first bridge across Miss- 
issippi at, 326. 

Minnesota, admitted to Union, 343. 

Minuit, Peter, founds New Sweden, 
37. 

Missionary Ridge, 378. 

Mississippi, territory organized, 232; 
added to Union, 276. 

Mississippi River, discovered by De 
Soto, 15, 16; De Soto buried in, 16; 
explored by Joliet and Marquette, 31 ; 
fort projected by La Salle, at mouth 
of, 33; English forts on, captured, 
178; control of, claimed by Spain, 
190; control of mouth of, 232; en- 
gineering works at mouth of, 249; 
first bridge across, 326 ; Confederate 
defeats on, 365 ; open to the sea, 377 ; 
its system, 461. 

Mississippi Valley, monnds in, 19; 
taken possession of by La Salle, 32; 
policy of France to recover, 177. 

Missouri, added to Union, 276; as 
State and territory, 283; Mormons 
driven from, 313; sensitiveness re- 
garding antislavery, 340; settlers 
from, disturb Kansas, 340, 341. 

Missouri Compromise, 282, 285 ; sup- 
posedly repealed by Compromise of 
1850, 339. 

Missouri River, 283; ascended, 233; 
svstem, 461, 462. 

Mobile, taken from Spaniards, 247; 
British prevented from taking, 250. 

Mobile Bay, entered by Farragut, 380. 

Mobilians, 23. 

Mohawk Valley, 109; settlements in, 
115; New Englanders emigrate to, 
230. 



GENERAL INDEX. 



517 



Mohican Indians, accompany La Salle, 
32. 

Molino del Rey, Mexico, battle of, 30G. 

Money, coined by Massachusetts, (54, 

Monitor and Merriniac, tight between, 
3»i6, 367. 

Monmouth Court House, battle of, 170. 

Monroe, James, Secretary of State, 
Acting Secretary of War, 257 ; elect- 
ed President, 262; administration 
called "Era of Good Feeling," 262; 
portrait, sketch, 2(52; promulgates 
Monroe Doctrine, 267. 

Monroe Doctrine, Holy Alliance gives 
rise to, 267 ; protects x\merican con- 
tinent, 267 ; involved in attempt of 
Maximilian, 394 ; also in Venezuelan 
question, 414. 

Montana, added to Union, 412. 

Montcalm, Marquis of, encamps before 
Quebec, 97 : defeated, killed, 99. 

Monterey, Cal., independence of Cali- 
fornia declared at, 305. 

Monterey, Mexico, captured, 305. 

Montezuma, conquered by Cortez, 15. 

Montgomery, General, captures Mont- 
real, 149; killed, 150. 

Montgomery, Ala., Confederate gov- 
ernment formed at, 347. 

Montmorenci, AVolfe fails to capture 
outworks near, 97. 

Montreal, visited by Cartier, 28 ; vis- 
ited by Charaplain, 29 ; La Salle set- 
tles near, 32; as to origin of word, 
38 ; surrenders to English, 99 ; cap- 
tured by Montgomery, 149. 

Monts, Comte de, establishes Port 
Royal, 29. 

Moors, surrender Granada, 5. 

Moqui Indians, 16. 

Morgan, General, at Cowpens, 181. 

Morgan, J. Pierpont, 424. 

INIormons, irrigate Utah, 313; life and 
customs of, '313, 314. 

Morrill, Justin Smith, long service in 
Senate, 207. 

Morrill, Lot M., Secretary of Treas- 
ury, 438. 

Morris, Robert, 188. 

Morristown, American winter quar- 
ters at, 169. 

Morse, Samuel F. B., invents electric 
telegraph, 325 ; portrait, sketch, 327. 

Morton, Julius Sterling, Secretary of 
Agriculture, 442. 

Morton, Levi P., Vice President, 410, 
441. 

Moultrie, Colonel, repulses British, 
153. 

Mound builders, 19, 20. 



Mounds in Ohio, contents of, 19. 

Mt. Hope, R.I., King Philip killed 

near, 63. 
Mt. Vernon, cut of, 225; Washington 

returns to, 184, 225. 

Names, English, often used in Amer- 
ica, 53, 54; Indian, 23. 

Nausen, Fridtjof, 345. 

Nantes, Edict of, revocation causes 
Huguenots to leave France, 455. 

Napoleon I., makes friends with 
United States, 228 ; sells Louisiana 
to the United States, 232, 233; be- 
comes Emperor, 238; claims right 
to seize vessels trading with Eng- 
land, 238 ; withdraws decrees pro- 
hibiting commerce in favor of United 
States, 241. 

Napoleon HI. and Mexico, 393, 394. 

Narragansett Bay, probably visited 
by Verrazano, 27 ; settlers of, com- 
pelled to leave Massachusetts Bay, 
58. 

Nashville, battle of, 381. 

Nat Turner's insurrection, 281. 

Natchez, Spanish give up post at, 232 ; 
Burr's plot stopped at, 234. 

National Academy of Design, 327. 

National Antislavery Society, formed, 
299. 

Nationa'l banks, established, 375. 

National debt, see Debt, national. 

National-Republican party, becomes 
Whig party, 289. 

Nauvoo, 111., 313. 

Naval Academy, Auaapolis, 331. 

Navigation Acts (1651), intended to 
benefit England, 62 ; produce wars 
with Holland and Spain, 62 ; affects 
tobacco trade, 81. 

Nebraska, Kansas-Nebraska bill, 338- 
340 ; free-state men emigrate to, 
341 ; admitted to Union, 393. 

Negroes, not citizens according to 
Taney's decision, 342 ; as soldiers in 
war for the Union, 375, 376; im- 
provement of, seen at Atlanta Ex- 
position, 413. 

Nelson, John, Secretary of State, 321 ; 
Attorney General, 322. 

Netherlands, 34. 

Nevada, part of Mexican cession, 306 ; 
admitted to Union, 393. 

New Amsterdam, name changed to 
New York, 63. 

New England, United Colonies of, 
league formed, (51 ; new charters for, 
65, 66; hostile to Quakers, 70; 
makes successful expedition against 



518 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Louisburg, 91 ; seafaring population, 
110; towns, 113; colonial life in, 
114, 115; privateering in, 115; op- 
position to Embargo Act in, 241 ; bit- 
terness in, against War of 1812, 251 ; 
earlier manufacturing life in, 271. 

New England and New York, Andros 
governor of province, 04. 

New France, Ohamplain governor of, 
31 ; expansion of its boundaries, 32 ; 
disappears from map of North 
America, 99. 

New Hampshire, settlements begun 
in, 58; named by Mason, 58; gov- 
ernor for a term appointed by crown, 
6(3 ; claims part of Vermont, 207. 

New Haven colony, buys its land from 
Indians, 50. 

New Jersey, occupation of, 72 ; colo- 
nial life in, 116, 117; Washington's 
retreat through, 167 ; panic of in- 
habitants, 168. 

New Mexico, penetrated by Coronado, 
16; cliff-dwellers in, 19; invaded 
and declared a territory, 304; part 
of, in Mexican cession, 306; ques- 
tion of slavery in, 315 ; made a ter- 
ritory, 315. 

New Netherland, settlement of, 36; 
Dutch from, invade New Sweden, 
37 ; English take possession of, 62, 
63; ceded to England, 63. 

New Netherland Company, 35. 

New Orleans, made over by France to 
Spain, 99: right o* deposit at, 232; 
right withdrawn 232 ; operations 
about, 249; Jackson's preparations 
to defend, 251; ^oattle of, 251; sur- 
renders to Farragut, 365. 

New Sweden, settlement of, 36, 37 ; 
invasion by Dutch, 37. See also 
Delaware. 

New York, city, first called New Am- 
sterdam, 36 ; New Amsterdam be- 
comes, 63 ; a military post of Great 
Britain, 116; Washington prepares 
to defend, 153; first campaign of 
Revolution directed against, 165 ; in 
hands of Bx-itish, 167 ; map of vicin- 
ity, 168 ; evacuated by British, 184 ; 
seat of government temporarily in, 
202 ; developed by Erie Canal, Tib. 

New York, State, home of Iroquois in, 
23, 116 ; New Jersey joined with, in 
one province, 72; colonial life in, 
115; great estates of patroons, 116; 
Assembly, closed by Parliament, 
137 ; British plan for subduing west- 
ern part of, 170 ; claims part of 
Vermont, 207. 



New York Bay, probably visited by 
Verrazano, 27 ; visited by Hudson, 
35. 

Newburgh, Washington says farewell 
to army at, 184. 

Newcastle, Delaware, 72, 74. 

Newfoundland, wide application of 
name, 26 ; early fisheries off, 27 ; 
Calvert finds it too bleak for colony, 
76. 

Newport, Captain Christopher, settles 
Jamestown, 45. 

Newport, R.I., settled, 58; French 
fieet at, 176, 177. 

Newport News, origin of name, 39, 44. 

Newspapers, early, 124, 213; growth 
of, 331. 

Niagara Falls, discovered by Henne- 
pin, 32. 

Niagara Suspension Bridge, 326. 

Nicaragua, Walker's expedition to, 
341. 

Nicolet, Jean, reaches Michigan and 
Wisconsin, 31. 

Niles, John M., Postmaster General, 
321. 

Noble, John W., Secretary of Interior, 
441. 

Non-Importation Agreements, 132. 

Non-Intercourse Act, 239; withdrawn 
as relating to France, 241. 

Norsemen, find Iceland and Green- 
land, 447; probably landed in North 
America, 448; invented the keel and 
the cask, 448. 

North, Lord, heads ministry, 1.36; 
urges partial remission of tax on 
tea, 139 ; introduces Boston Port 
Bill, 140 ; sends commissioners to 
treat with Americans, 174. 

North, the, advantage over slave 
States, 281 ; dependence of South on, 
282 ; enriched by protective tariff, 
292 ; strengthened by immigration, 
330. 

North America, ' Breton fishermen 
make way to, 20, 27 ; John Cabot 
touches, 40; probably touched by 
Norsemen, 448. 

North Carolina, visited by Raleigh, 
42; settled, 82, 83; becomes separate 
province, 84 ; attempted secession of 
part of, 190 ; slow to ratify Constitu- 
tion, 194 ; ill organized for war, 357. 

North Bend, Ind., 302. 

North Dakota, added to Union, 412. 

North River, see Hudson River. 

Northeast passage, Hudson fails to 
find, 35. 

Northern Cross Railroad, 326. 



GENERAL INDEX. 



51V) 



Northern Pacific Railroad, completed, 
404. 

Northwest passage, efforts to find, 41. 

Northwest Territory, 188, 189; divided 
into Ohio and Indiana territories, 
230; slavery excluded from, 282; 
Ordinance of 1787, for government 
of, text, 471-477. 

Norway, coast of, 440. 

Nova Scotia, early fisheries off, 27 ; a 
part of Acadia, \)4. 

Nueces River, claimed as boundary by 
Mexicans, oOl. 

Nullification, declared by South Caro- 
lina, 294 ; resisted by Jackson, 294. 

Oath of office, 489. 

Oglethorpe, James, founds Georgia, 85 ; 
portrait, 85 ; defends Frederica, 86. 

Ohio, brought under control of United 
States, 178 ; formed from Northwest 
Territory, 230; becomes a State, 
230; settlement of, 230,231. 

Ohio Company, 91, 92. 

Ohio Valley, mounds in, 19; England 
wants to retain, 184; colonizing in, 
189. 

Oklahoma Territory, opened, 412. 

Old Dominion, name for Virginia, 80. 

"Old Ironsides," frigate Constitution 
called, 245. 

Old South Church, Boston, landing of 
tea opposed in, 140. 

Oliver, Andrew, burned in elfigy, 133. 

Olmsted, Frederick Law, studies of 
the South, 280. 

Olney, Richard, Attorney General, 441 ; 
Secretary of State, 441. 

Order in Council (180tj) , 238 ; one cause 
of War of 1812, 243. 

Ordinance of 1787, 189, 231; excludes 
slavery from Northwest Territory, 
282, 307; text, 471-478. 

Ordinances of Secession, 347. 

Oregon, boundaries of, 309; Hudson's 
Bay Company has posts in, 310 ; joint 
occupation of by Great Britain and 
United States, 310, 311 ; American 
emigration to, 311 ; admitted to Un- 
ion, 343. 

Oriskany, battle of, 171. 

Ostend Manifesto, 345. 

Otis, James, Jr., refuses to defend a 
Writ of Assistance, 129. 

Overland route to California, 312. 

Pacific Coast, reached overland, 234; 
claimed by Spain, 263,309; Russia's 
claims on, 266; harbors of, 459; 
rivers, 461 ; forests, 462. 



Pacific Ocean , Balboa first European to 
see western shore of, 14 ; Magellan 
first to navigate, sailing westward, 
14 ; crossed by Drake, 41 ; called 
South Sea, 46 ; becoming a commer- 
cial highway, 427. 

Pacific Railroad, construction pro- 
vided for, 274; route, 326; finished, 
393. 

Paine, Thomas, his Cointnon Sense 
early argument for independence, 
154. 

Pakenham, General Sir Edward, com- 
mands British at New Orleans, 251 ; 
killed, 251. 

Palo Alto, battle of, 304. 

Palos, 5 ; tleet of Columbus sails from, 
7. 

Pamlico Sound, 42. 

Panama, Balboa at, 14. 

Panic of 1837, 295. 

Paper money, issued by separate 
States, 187 ; not taken by English 
merchants, 189. 

Paris, treaty of peace of 1763 signed 
at, 99 ; treaty of peace of 1783 signed 
at, 184. 

Parker, Captain, at Lexington, 142. 

Parliament, definition, 39; sustained 
by Puritans, 52 ; dissolved by Charles 
L, 52; war with Charles I., 61; 
passes Navigation Acts, 62; closed 
by James II., 65; subdues royalists in 
Virginia, 80 ; reimburses colonies 
for cost of King George's War, 91 ; 
controlled by a few powerful fami- 
lies, 126 ; right of, to tax colonies 
questioned, 129; lays Stamp Act, 
130; opposition in, to Stamp Act, 
133 ; repeals Stamp Act, claims right 
to tax colonies, 134 ; attempts tighter 
control of colonies, 136 ; removes 
part of tax on tea, 138, 139 ; passes 
Boston Port Bill, 140; small party 
in, supports resistance of colonies, 
146. 

Parties, political, in England, 126. 

Party government, Jackson's extreme 
view of, 291. 

Pascua Florida, 14. 

Patent oftice, 2(59, 270. 

Patrons of Husbandry, .396. 

Patroons, rights of, in New Nether- 
land, 36 ; great estates of, IKi. 

Paulding, James Kirk, Secretary of 
Navy, 321. 

Peabody Museum, Cambridge, 19. 

Peace Conference, at Washington, 350. 

Pearce, James A., Secretary of In- 
terior, 435. 



520 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Pendleton Civil Service Bill, 396. 

Penn, William, a convert to the 
Friends, 70; portrait, 71 ; west New 
Jersey comes into hands of, 72 ; 
founds Pennsylvania, 73; invites 
immigration, 73 ; treats Indians 
justly, 74, 75; sails to America, 74, 
75 ; lays out Philadelphia, 75 ; claims 
portion of settlements on Delaware 
River, 78. 

Penn family, opposed by Franklin, 118. 

Pennsylvania, charter obtained by 
Penn, 73; called in honor of Penn's 
father, 73; immigration invited, 73 ; 
Penn sails to, 74, 75 ; boundary be- 
tween Maryland and, 78; colonial 
inhabitants of, 117 ; ratifies Consti- 
tution, 194 ; whisky rebellion in, 
225; invaded by Lee, 376; Early's 
raid in, 379. 

Pennsylvania Gazette, device in, 124, 
125. 

Pensacola, British rendezvous at, 249; 
abandoned, 250. 

Pensioners, living, 385. 

Peoria, 111., La Salle builds fort on site 
of, 32. 

Pequot War, 60, 61. 

Perez, Juan, prior of La Rabida, aids 
Columbus, 5. 

Perry, M. F., expedition of, to Japan, 
326. 

Perry, Oliver H., victory on Lake Erie, 
246. 

Persecution, religious, forbidden in 
Maryland, 78. 

Personal Liberty laws, 315. 

Peru, conquered by Pizarro, 15. 

Peter the Hermit, 448. 

Petersburg, Grant besieges, 378; Lee 
retreats from, 382. 

Petroleum, discovery of, 395. 

Philadelphia, cut of, 74; laid out by 
Penn, 75; early prosperity, 117; 
services of Franklin, 118; first 
American medical school in, 120; 
first Continental Congress at, 141 ; 
Declaration of Independence read 
from State House in, 157 ; map of 
vicinity, 169 ; British enter, 172; ex- 
hibition of 1876 at, 398. 

Philadelphia, frigate, Decatur's ex- 
ploit on, 237. 

Philip, Indian chief, attacks New Eng- 
land colonies, 63; killed, 63. 

Philippine islands become possessions 
of United States, 418-422. 

Pickens, Andrew, 179. 

Pickering, Timothy, Secretary of State, 
255, 256 ; Secretary of War, 255. 



Pickett's charge, 386. 

Pierce, Franklin, administration of, 
338-341 ; portrait, sketch, 339. 

Pierrepont, Edwards, Attorney Gen- 
eral, 439. 

Pilgrims, Separatists known as, 50; 
landing of, 50, 51 ; sign compact in 
Maytlower, 51 ; first winter in Plym- 
outh, 51 ; text of compact, 467. 

Pine-tree shilling, cut of, 64. 

Pinckney, Charles Cotesworth, envoy 
to France, 226; treaty with Spain, 
232. 

Pinkney, William, Attorney General, 
257. 

Pinzon, Martin, impressed by ideas of 
Columbus, 5; Pinzon brothers, assist 
Columbus in fitting out fleet, 6. 

Pioneer life, 218, 219. 

Pirates, 84; Barbary, 236. 

Pitt, William, Earl of Chatham, 126; 
policy in French and Indian War, 96 ; 
defends opposition to Stamp Act, 
133 ; withdraws from power, 136 ; 
opposes policy of George III., 150, 
151 ; hated by George III., 173. 

Pittsburg, Indian attack on, fails, 100. 

Pittsburg Landing, battle of, 363, 364. 

Pizarro, conquests by, 15. 

Plains, Western, of the United States, 
463. 

Plains of Abraham, battle of, 98. 

Plantation life, in Virginia, 79. 

Planters, growing power of, in Vir- 
ginia, 81, 82; methods of, 210. 

Plattsburg, British repulsed at, 249. 

Plymouth, England, Drake sails from, 
41 ; Mayflower sails from, 49. 

Plymouth, Mass., landing of Pilgrims 
at, 50, 51 ; settlement, 51 ; people 
from, settle Windsor, Conn., 56. 

Plymouth Company, part of Virginia 
Company, 44 ; grants some self-gov- 
ernment to Plymouth settlement, 51. 

Plymouth Rock, 51. 

Pocahontas, story of, 46. 

Poe, Edgar Allan, 332 ; portrait, sketch, 
332. 

Poinsett, Joel R., Secretary of War, 
321. 

Poland, 163. 

Political adventurers, move to the 
South, 391. 

Politics, partisan, upheld by Jackson, 
291. 

Polk, James Knox, portrait, 302; 
elected President, 303; sketch, 303; 
announces war with Mexico, 304. 

Polo, Marco, adventures of, inspire 
Columbus, 2. 



GENERAL INDEX. 



521 



Polygamy, abolished in Utah, 405. 

Pouce de Leon, touches Florida, 14; 
first Spaniard to reach United States, 
14. 

Pontiac's War, 99, 100. 

Poo7- RldianVs Almanac, printed by 
Franklin, 118. 

Poor whites, in colonial times, 121. 

Pope, General, captures Island Num- 
ber Ten, 365 ; defends Washington, 
370 ; routed at Manassas, 372. 

Population, of English colonies, 110 ; 
of United States, at first census, 
209. • 

Port Hudson, surrenders, 377. 

Port Royal, established by De Monts, 
29. 

Porter, Peter B., Secretary of War, 
320. 

Portland, Me., burned by British, 149. 

Porto Rico, 419, 420, 422,' 423. 

Portsmouth, N.H., settled, 59. 

Portsmouth, R.I., settled, 58. 

Portugal, King of, deceives Colum- 
bus, 3; Vespucci voyages in interest 
of, 12; "Line of Demarcation" be- 
tween possessions of Spain and of, 
13; early commerce of, 451 ; passion 
for finding gold mines, 453. 

Portuguese, the, seek new route to 
India, 2 ; reach East Indies first sail- 
ing eastwai'd, then westward, 15. 

Postage, reduced, 406. 

Powhatan, spares Captain John Smith, 
46 ; treats English kindly, 46. 

Praying Indians, 63. 

President, election of, 428, 429 ; powers, 
429, 485, 486 ; office, 484, 485 ; duties, 
486; constitutional provisions for 
electing, 491, 492. 

Presidential election of 1860, issue of, 
344. 

Presidential Succession Bill, 408. 

Presidents, Ohio furnishes a number 
of, 331. 

Prescott, Colonel William, commander 
at Bunker Hill, 147. 

Preston, William B., Secretary of 
Navy, 435. 

Princeton, New Jersey, British routed 
at, 169. 

Printing, invention of, 450. 

Privateering, in French and Indian 
War, 115. 

Privateers, famous, 178, 179. 

Proctor, General, defeated, 246. 

Proctor;: Redfield, Secretary of W^ar, 
441. 

Prophet, the, brother of Tecumseh, 
241. 



Protection, see Tariff, protective. 

Protestants, most of colonists were, 
110. 

Providence, INId., first name of An- 
napolis, 78. 

Providence, R.I., settled, 58. 

Provincetown harbor, MayHower 
reaches, 49; compact signed in, 51. 

Provincial Congress formed in Massa- 
chusetts, 141 ; collects military stores 
in Concord, 142; asks Continental 
Congress to take charge of army, 
146. ^ ^' 

Public lands, 188; assigned to fami- ' 
lies by Homestead Bill, 374 ; grants 
of, 396. 

Public libraries, 122. 

Public schools, see Schools. 

Pueblo Indians, 19. 

Puget Sound, destined to be a great 
port, 459. 

Pulaski, a Polish hero, joins Conti- 
nental army, 161. 

Puritans, members of Church of Eng- 
land, 52; wish to leave England, 52; 
migration of, 53; settle Boston, 54; 
found Massachusetts, 55 ; settle Con- 
necticut and New Haven, 56; banish 
Roger Williams, 58; dislike to In- 
dians, 59; declare a commonwealth 
in England, 61 ; hospitably treated 
in Maryland, 78; govern Virginia 
during Commonwealth, 80; suspi- 
cious of French, 89; exodus of, to 
America. 454, 455. 

Put-in Bay, 24(5. 

Putnam, General Israel, 147; com- 
mands Brooklyn Heights, 166 

Putnam, General Rufus, settles Ohio, 
230, 231. 

Pyrites, taken for gold in Virginia, 
47. 

Quakers, origin of word, 70. See also 
Friends, Society of. 

Quebec, present site of, seen by Car- 
tier, 28 ; founded by Champlaiu, 
29; cut of, 89; Wolfe's stratagem 
against, 97, 98; battle of, 98; sur- 
render of, to English, 99; Arnold's 
retreat from, 150. 

Queenstown Heights, Americans fail 
to take, 244. 

Quilting bee, definition, 109. 

Quincy, Mass., first railroad at, 273. 

Railroads, first one at Quincy, Mass., 
273; first passenger railway, 274; 
Baltimore & Ohio Railroad opened, 
274; growth, 274, 326, 424. 



522 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Raleigh, Sir Walter, reaches North 
Carolina, 42 ; names Virginia, 42 ; 
portrait, 42; plans for colonizing, 
42 ; loses trace of colony, 43 ; put to 
death, 43. 

Ramsey, Alexander, Secretary of War, 
439. 

Randall, Alexander W., Postmaster 
General, 437. 

Randolph, Edmund, first Attorney 
General, 202 ; Attorney General, 
Secretary of State, 255. 

Rank, early distinctions of, 112; in 
church, at college, 113. 

Rawlins, John A., Secretary of War, 
438. 

Reaping machine, 329. 

Reciprocity treaties, 413. 

Reconstruction period, 387, 396. 

Regicide judges, 67. 

Religion, early provisions for, in 
United States, 213 ; freedom of, 490. 

Religious tests, abolished, 213, 489. 

Religious toleration in Maryland, 77, 78. 

Renaissance, 449, 450. 

Republican (Anti-Federalist) party, 
favors French Revolution, 222. 

Republican party, Fremont candidate 
of, 342; nominates Lincoln, 344; 
hatred of, in South, 346 ; not in sym- 
pathy with President Johnson, 388 ; 
dissatisfaction witli, 401. 

Resaca de la Palma, battle of, 304. 

Resumption of specie payments, 402. 

Revenue, national, Hamilton's plan 
for, 206. 

Revenue officers, appointed by crown, 
66. 

Revere, Paul, ride of, 142. 

Revolution, American, see American 
Revolution. 

Rhode Island, settlements begun in, 
58 ; denied admittance to United 
Colonies of New England, 61; pri- 
vateering from, 115; first to declare 
independence of crown, 154; slow 
to renounce royal charter, 154 ; 
slow to ratify Constitution, 194. 

Rice, 84. 

Richardson, William A., Secretary of 
Treasury, 4.38. 

Richmond, becomes seat of Confeder- 
acy, 355 ; Grant moves on, 377 ; cap- 
ture of, 382, 383; Lincoln visits, 383. 

Right of petition, defended by 
J. Q. Adams, 301. 

Rio Grande, claimed as boundary by 
Texans, 304 ; made southwestern 
boundary of United States, 306; a 
natural boundary, 457. 



I Rittenhouse, David, astronomer, 120. 
I Roanoke Island, 42. 

I Robertson, John, settles in Southwest- 

II ern Territory, 216. 

Robeson, George M., Secretary of 
Navy, 438, 439. 

Rochambeau, helps surround Corn- 
wallis, 182. 

Rocky Mountains, 460; crossed by 
Lewis and Clarke, 233 ; dispute over 
country west of, 309-311 ; Fremont's 
expeditions to, 326. 

Rodgers, Commodore John, exploits 
of'; 245. 

Rodney, Cfesar A., Attorney General, 
257. 

Rogers, Major Robert, breaks Ponti- 
ac's power, 100. 

Rolfe, John, marries Pocahontas, 46. 

Roman Catholics, unwelcome in Eng- 
land, 76. 

Rome, N.Y., Fort Stanwix on present 
site of, 171. 

Rosecrans, General, defeated at Chick- 
amauga, 377. 

Royalists, in Virginia, 80. 

Rush, Dr. Benjamin, 120. 

Rush, Richard, Attorney General, 257, 
319 ; attitude of, as minister to Eng- 
land, toward Holy Alliance, 267; 
Secretary of Treasury, 320. 

Rusk, Jeremiah M., Secretary of Agri- 
culture, 441. 

Russia, claim on Pacific coast, 266 ; 
notified that this claim would be 
contested, 266, 267. 

Sabine River, Mexican boundary, 265, 
298. 

Saco, Maine, founded, 59. 

Sagas, 447. 

Sailors, sold into slavery by Barbary 
pirates, 236, 237 ; impressment of, by 
England, 238, 239; impressment con- 
tinued, 241 ; impressment grievance 
ceases, 252 ; of the Union, grand re- 
view of, 384, 385. 

St. Augustine, only remaining sign of 
Spaniards in Florida, 16. 

St. Clair, Arthur, defeated by Indians, 
224. 

St. Croix River, De Monts establishes 
fur-trading post on, 29. 

St. Lawrence River, 110; river and 
gulf of, discovered by Cartier, 28; 
river ascended by Champlain, 29. 

St. Leger, Colonel, retreats from Fort 
Stanwix, 171. 

St. Louis, growth of, 283; bridge at, 
283j center of Western fur trade, 310. 



GENERAL INDEX. 



623 



St. Mary's, Md., 77. 

Salem, Mass., founded by Puritans, 
53. 

Samoa, treaty regarding, 412; 422. 

San Francisco, early days of, 312. 

Santa Anna, loses at Buena Vista, and 
Jalapa, 305. 

Santa Fe, 304. 

Santa Maria, caravel of Columbus, 6. 

Saratoga, Burgoyne surrenders at, 
173. 

Sargasso Sea, xvi ; fleet of Columbus 
enters, 7, 8. 

Saunders, Richard, pseudonym of 
Franklin, 118. 

Savannah, founded, 85; capture of, 
177; evacuated, 184; Sherman en- 
ters, 381. 

Savannah, steamer, crosses Atlan- 
tic, 273. 

Say and Sele, Lord, holds patent to 
land on Connecticut River, 56. 

Saybrook, Conn., planted, 56. 

Scandinavia, emigration from, 328. 

Schenectady, destroyed, 90. 

Scholield, General John M., 381 ; Sec- 
retary of War, 437. 

Scholarship, driven westward by 
Turks, 449. 

Schools, early set up in Massachusetts, 
55 ; slowth growth of system of 
public, 213 ; portion of each Western 
township reserved for benefit of, 
231. 

Schurz, Carl, Secretary of Interior, 
'439. 

Schuyler, General Philip, blocks Bur- 
goyne, 171 ; superseded by Gates on 
eve of victory, 173. 

Schuylkill, meaning of word, 69. 

Scotch, settle in South Carolina, 84. 

Scotch-Irish, in the West, 214; Prot- 
estants, reach America, 455. 

Scott, Dred, 352. 

Scott, General Winfield, gallant stand 
of, at Queenstown Heights, 244; 
wins at Lundy's Lane, 248 ; dis- 
abled for rest of war, 248 ; Mexican 
campaign, 305 ; takes city of Mex- 
ico, 306 ; candidate of Whigs against 
Pierce, 338 ; retires from command 
of Union forces, 358. 

Sea of Darkness, name for unknown 
Atlantic, 6. 

Seamen, see Sailors. 

Search, right of, claimed by England, 
223 ; sustained by Jay's treaty, 224 ; 
England continues to exercise, 241. 
See also Sailors. 

Search warrants, 490. 
2 L 



Secession, threatened by South, 346; 
South Carolina passes Ordinance of, 
347; other ordinances follow, 347; 
question of, settled by the war for 
the Union, 388. 

Sedition act, 227. 

Seminole Indians, 412. 

Seminole War, 264, 2(55. 

Semnies, Captain, of the Alabama, 380. 

Senate, 429, 479, 480. 

Separatists, beliefs of, 48; in Holland, 
49; sail in Mayflower from Plym- 
outh, 49; known as the Pilgrims, 
50; settle Plymouth Colony, 51. 

Serapis, fight with Bon Homme Rich- 
ard, 179. 

Serpent Mound, in Loudon, Ohio, 19. 

Servants, indented, 79. 

Seven Years' War, 95, 9(), 128. 

Sevier, John, settles in Southwestern 
Territory, 217. 

Seward, William H., concession of, to 
slavery, 350 ; attempt to assassinate, 
384 ; Secretary of State, 437. 

Shackamaxon, place of Penn's treaty 
with Indians, 75. 

Shaw, Colonel Robert G., 375. 

Shays's Rebellion, 191. 

Shelby, Isaac, Secretary of War, 319. 

Shenandoah Valley, Stonewall Jack- 
son's victory in, 370; Early retires 
up, 379; Sheridan in, 382. 

Sheridan, General, defeats Early at 
Winchester, 379, 380. 

Sherman, John, Secretary of Treasury, 
439 ; Secretary of State, 442. 

Sherman, General, sketch, 378; por- 
trait, 379; takes Atlanta, 381 ; march 
to the sea, 381 ; march northward, 
382 ; Secretary of War, 438. 

Sherman family, importance of, in 
Ohio, 231. 

Shiloh, battle of, 363, 364. 

Shipbuilding, begun in Massachusetts, 
55. 

Shipping, American, War of 1812 stim- 
ulates, 270 ; falls off with peace, 270. 

Sic semper Tyrannis, meaning, 374; 
assassin Booth's use of, 384. 

Silver, free coinage of, 416. 

Simms, William Gilmore, 336. 

Sioux War. 400, 401. 

Sitting Bull, 401. 

Six Nations, 23 ; at Albany Congress, 
92; do not join Pontiac, 100; Fort 
Stanwix treaty with, 215. 

Slater, Samuel, sets up cotton spin- 
ning, 212. 

Slaveholders, Lincoln unwilling to 
estrange, 360. 



524 



GENERAL INDEX, 



Slave laws, growing opposition to, 
280, 281. 

Slavo trade, generally forbidden iu 
South, 278, 

Slavery, Indians not actually sold into, 
by Spaniards, IG ; first brought to 
Virginia, 7l>; introduced into South 
Carolina from Barbadoes, 8o; Indi- 
ans sold into, inCarolinas, 84; colo- 
nial, in Virginia and South Carolina, 
120; elTeet of, 121; excluded from 
Northwest Territory, 189; becomes 
a national question, 27(5; growth of 
system, 278, 279; economical aspect, 
280 ; relations of South and North re- 
garding, 281 ; (juest ion of, in territo- 
ries. 282, 28;> ; Missouri Compromise, 
282, 28;>; State sovereignty, a safe- 
guard for, 285; becomes a moral 
question, 20!); abolitionists attack, 
300; attempt to draw attention 
from, o03; question of, in tiu-rito- 
ries, 31"); portrayed by Mrs. Stowe, 
33(5; reestablishnient of, in Central 
America sought, 341 ; \V. H. Seward 
willing to peri)etuate, 350; Fre- 
mont's proclamation against, 3i)0; 
abolished, 402. 

Slaves, number in colonies, 110; fugi- 
tive, helped by Indians into Florida, 
2()4 ; not persons according to Su- 
preme Court, 342 ; declared "contra- 
band of war," 3G0. 

Smith, Caleb B., Secretary of Interior, 
437. 

Smith, Hoke, Secretary of Interior, 
442. 

Smith, Captain John, saved by Poca- 
hontas, 4(5; searches for gold, 4(5; 
portrait, 47 ; Pilgrims decline his 
offer to settle wilii them, 50. 

Smith, Joseph, publishes Book of Mor- 
mon, killed. 313. 

Smith, Robert, Secretary of Navy, 
Attorney General, 25G; Secretary 
of State, 257. 

Smithsonian Institution, 325. 

Smuggling, prevalence of m colonies, 
128 ; writs of assistance aimed at, 
128. 

Social equality of frontier, 219. 

Social rank, early, 112, 113. 

Soldiers, negro, in war for the Union, 
375, 37(5; of the Union, grand re- 
view of, 384, 385; quartering of, 
4^0. 

Sons of Liberty, 133. 

Soto, Ferdinand de, discovers Missis- 
sippi River, 15, 1(5: buried therein, 
IG, 



South, the, colonial life in, 120; effect 
of slavery in, 121 ; British campaign 
in (1778), 177; campaign of 1780 in, 
179; campaign of 1781, 181, 182; 
labor in, 278; growth of slavery in, 
279 ; becomes relatively poorer, 280 ; 
slave laws in, 281 ; favors State sov- 
ereignty, 285, 287; at tirst favors 
proti'ctivc tariff', 292; wants lower 
tariff, 292; nuililication dt)ctrine in, 
21>4 ; anxious in regard to rapid 
growth of North, 298 ; wants ex- 
pansion of slave territory, 341 ; 
threatens to leave Union, 34G; un- 
changed character of, 347 ; ordi- 
nances of secession pass, 347; or- 
ganizes (.'onfodcrate States, 347 ; 
not entirely ciinnuitted to destruc- 
tion of linion, 348; attempt to 
pacify, 350; reconstruction not sat- 
isfactory to, 389; corrupt political 
influence in, 391; Federal troops 
withdrawn from, 402. See also 
Confederate States. 

South America, Columbus set foot on, 
12; visited by Vespucci, 12; Magel- 
lan follows coast of, 14 ; western ' 
coast of, conquered by Pizarro, 15; 
reiniblics set up in, 2()G. 

Soutii liend. lud., settled, 231. 

Soutli Carolina, settled, 83; becomes 
separate province, 84; Huguenots 
and otliers settle in, 84; colonial 
slavery in, 120; tirst to adopt a 
constitution, 154; claims right to 
nullify tariff acts. 294; threatens to 
witiidraw from Union, 294; tariff 
moditied to please. 294: passes Or- 
dinance of Secession. 347 : demands 
surrender of Fort Sumter, 349. 

South Dakota, added to Union, 412. 

South River, see Dtdaware River. 

South Sea. Pacitic Ocean called, 46. 

Southampton, Earl of, sends out Gos- 
nold to Virginia, 44. 

Southampton, Separatists sail from, 
49. 

Southard, Samuel L., Secretary of 
Navy, 319, 320. 

Siuithwest, operations in, during War 
of 1812. 2h). 247. 

Southwestern Territory, 21G, 217. 

Spain, conquers Moors at Granada, 5; 
agreement of crown of, with Colum- 
bus,^G: Vespucci sails in interest of, 
12; " Line of Demarcation " between 
possessions of Portugal and of, 13; 
conquests (*f, in America, 15: wars 
with Englanil, (52: gives up Florida, 
99; Louisiana made over to, 99,- 



GENERAL INDEX. 



enters alliiince with France for lim- 
iting western boundaries of United 
States, 177 ; claims (Control of Missis- 

. sippi, IIJO; I'inckney's treaty with, 
232 ; cedes l^onisiana to France, 2."32 ; 
liurr's expedition hostile to, 234 ; 
claims west coast of North Ain(;r- 
ica, 2(>3, IW.); Holy Alliance i)ro- 
poses to reestablish Spanish power 
in America, 2(>(); mismanaj^es Cuba, 
410; disjiossessed of her possessions 
in West Indices and East Indies, 4IS- 
421 : early commerce <>i, 4")! : passion 
for findin;; .i;old njines, 4~)'.'>\ ncjilects 
her American c(jlonies, 4o3; growing 
supremacy of, 4r»4. 

Spanianls, confpicst of Mexico Ijy, 15; 
make one settlement only in Florida, 
Hi; Indians submit to rule (»f, Ki; 
intermarriage of, with Indians, 17: 
power of, dis[)uted by West India 
Company, '.Vi; troubles with Caro- 
linas, Hi. 

Spanish provinces, throw off dominion 
of Spain, 2(H); intention of Holy 
Alliance to reassert Si>anish power 
over, 2(j(>; United States wishes 
Englan«l to recognize, 2G7. 

Speaker of the House, 430. 

Specie circular, issued by Jackson, 295 

Specie payment, suspended, 374, 375; 
resumed, 402. 

Speed, James, Attorney General, 437, 
4:58. 

Speedwell, sails from Delft Haven, 
then from Southampton, 49; found 
unsafe, 49. 

Spencer, John C, Secretary of Treas- 
ury, Secretary of War, 322. 

Spoils system, stimulated by Jackson, 
291. 

Squaws, 22. 

Stages, early, 123. 

Stamp Act, resistance to, 130; Vir- 
ginia's action against, 130, 131; 
Stamp Act congress, 132; attitude 
of colonies towards, 132; in Eng- 
land, 133; repealed, I'.'A. 

Stamp of 1705, cut of, 130. 

Stanbery, Henry, Attorney General, 
438. 

Standard time, 405, 40G. 

Standish, Captain Miles, 51. 

Stanton, Edwin M., removed from 
Secretaryship of War without con- 
sent of Senate, 392 ; Attorney Gen- 
eral, 4.'W); Secretary of War, 437. 

Star of the West, steamer, 349. 

" Star-Spangled Banner," occasion of, 
249. 



Stark, General John, wins at Benning- 
ton, 171. 

Starved Rock, in Illinois River, 33. 

State lianks, impetus to, 295 ; inflation 
of their paper, 295; resultant ])anic, 
295 ; suspend specie payment, 374. 

State records, 4.S8. 

State rights, beginning of doctrine, 
227, 228. 

State sovereignty, 285-287; d(;bated 
by Web.ster and Hayne, 291, 2i>2. 

Staten Island, occupied by British, lf;.">. 

States, colonifjs form into, l.">3; six 
adopt constitutions, 154; constitu- 
tions of, 159; common interests (jf, 
sought by Articles of C(>nfederation, 
159; relinquish titles to Western 
lands, 188; English restrictions on 
trade with, 189; disorder among, 
190; addition of new, 270; free, 
gain over slave, 298; present condi- 
tions of, 427, 428; powers denied to, 
484; new, 488; guarantees to, 488, 
489. 

States, seceding, plan for recognizing, 
388 ; all again represented in CoUr 
gress, 392. 

Steam, 220. 

Steamboats, invented by Fulton, 273. 

Stephens, Alexander H., Vice Presi- 
dent of the Confederate States, 348. 

Steuben, Baron, joins Continental 
army, 101 ; trains army at Valley 
Forge, 170. 

Stevenson, Adlai E., Vice President, 
413,441. 

Stevenson, Robert Ix)uis, 412. 

Stockade, cut of, 00. 

Stoddert, Benjamin, Secretary of 
Navy, 25f;. 

Stone, William, Puritan governor of 
Maryland, 78. 

Stony Point, captured by Wayne, 178. 

Stowe. Harriet Beecher, effect of 
Uncle Tom's Cabin, 3.'i0 ; sketch, 
3.30. 

Strait of Magellan, first passed, 14. 

Stuart, Alexander H. H., Secretary of 
Interior, 4.35. 

Students, social rank of, 113. 

Stuyvesant, Peter, 03. 

Subtreasury sy.stem, 290. 

Suffolk County, England, home of 
many Puritans, 5;]. 

Suits at common law, 491. 

Sullivan,- General John, captured by 
Howe, 166; retreats from Newport, 
177. 

Sullivan's Island, 1.53. 

Sumter, General, 179. 



526 



GENERAL IJJJBEX, 



Supreme Court, organization, 203; 
members removable by impeach- 
ment, 204; interprets Constitution, 
204 ; Dred Scott case in, 342. 

Surveys, government, 326. 

Sutter, Colonel, California gold first 
discovered at mills of, 312. 

Sweden, loses colony of New Sweden, 
37. 

Sylvania, name first proposed for 
Pennsylvania, 73. 

Symmes, John Cleves, obtains large 
grant in Ohio, 231. 

Taft, Alphonso, Secretary of War, 
Attorney General, 439. 

Taney, Roger B., Attorney General, 
320, 321 ; decides that negro is not a 
citizen, 342. 

Tariff, definition of, 269. 

Tariff, protective, 412 ; effects of tariff 
of 1816, 270, 271 ; reasons for enact- 
ing tariff of 1816, 270; favored by 
Whigs, 290; enriches North at ex- 
pense of South, 292 ; South Carolina 
claims right to nullify, 294; Clay 
proposes compromise on, 294 ; for- 
bidden by Confederate constitution, 
348; bill of 1861, 350; of 1890, 412. 

Tarleton, Banastre, 181. 

Tax, direct, 123. 

Taxation, self-imposed by colonists, 
126; Patrick Henry on, 132; of tea, 
opposed, 138, 140; Hamilton's plan 
for, 206. See also Duties ; Tariff. 

" Taxation without representation is 
tyranny," said by Otis, 129. 

Taylor, General Zachary, wins at Palo 
Alto, 304 ; wins at Monterey and 
Buena Vista, 305 ; portrait, 306 ; 
elected President, death, 307 ; wishes 
to bring California into Union, 
314. 

Tea, taxation of, 138, 139; opposition 
to landing tea in Boston, 139, 140. 

Tecumseh, defeated by Harrison, 241 ; 
attempts against same, 246; killed, 
246. 

Telegraph, electric, invented by Morse, 
.325. 

Telephone, first exhibited, 398, 400. 

Teller, Henry M., Secretary of Interior, 
440. 

Tennessee, organization of, 217 ; sends 
Andrew Jackson against Creeks, 
247; Union sentiment in, 354; effort 
to protect, 362. 

Tennessee, Confederate iron-clad, 380. 

Tenure of Office Act, 390 ; a cause of 
Johnson's impeachment, 392. 



Territories, 488; question of slavery 
in, 282-285, 315; contest over slavery 
in, 338; Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 339; 
center of contest in Kansas, 340, 
341. 

Texas, originally part of Mexico, 298; 
Mexico refuses to sell, 298; declares 
independence, 299; opposition to 
annexation, 299 ; annexation of, 303 ; 
last slave State added, 308; Clay 
proposes large money grant to, 314 ; 
receives grant, 315. 

Thames, battle of the, 246. 

Thirteen colonies, see English Colo- 
nies. 

Thomas, General George H., defeats 
Hood, 381. 

Thomas, Lorenzo, Secretary of War 
{ad interim), 437. 

Thomas, Philip F., Secretary of 
Treasury, 436. 

Thompson, Jacob, Secretary of In- 
terior, 436. 

Thompson, Richard W., Secretary of 
Navy, 439. 

Thompson, Smith, Secretary of Navy, ~ 
319. 

Ticonderoga, English defeat at, 96 ; 
retaken by Amherst, 97; map, 170; 
capture, 170, 171. 

Tilden, Samuel J., 401. 

Tippecanoe, battle of, 241. 

Titusville, Pa., petroleum discovered 
at, 395. 

Tobacco, 78; a source of wealth to 
Virginia, 48; used as money, 80; 
duties on, 81. 

Tompkins, Daniel D., Vice President, 
319. 

Tonnage, American, 268. 

Topeka Constitution, 340. 

Toscanelli, advises Columbus on route 
to Asia, 3; map, 4; Columbus be- 
lieved to have sailed by his map, 7. 

Tories, obnoxious name in America, 
289. 

Tortugas, fort at, refuses to surren- 
der, 349. 

Tory party in England, adherents of 
George III., 12(5. 

Toucey, Isaac, Attorney General, 322; 
Secretary of Navy, 426. 

Town meetings, 113 ; restriction of, in 
Massachusetts, 141. 

Towns, manufacturing, 271. 

Townshend, Charles, 136. 

Townships, Western, how marked off, 
231. 

Tracy, Benjamin F., Secretary of 
Navy, 441. 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Trade, restriction imposed by England 
on colonial, I'JT. 

Treason, 487. 

Treasury notes, 375. 

Treaty Elm, 75. 

Treaty of peace between England and 
United States, signed, 184. 

Treaty of Washington, 394, 305. 

Trees, cutting of, restricted, 127. 

Trent affair, 3(51. 

Trenton, N.J., Washington's victory 
at, 109. 

Tripoli, war with, 237. 

Troops, quartering of, in colonies, 
13t). 

Turks, cut off commerce with Asia, 2; 
drive learning westward, 449. 

Tuskegee, Ala., 391. 

Twiggs, General, surrenders Federal 
forces to Confederacy, 348. 

Tvler, John, portrait, 301 ; becomes 
"President, 302; sketch, 302; Vice 
President and President, 321 ; pre- 
sides over Peace Conference, 350. 

Tyner, James N., Postmaster General, 
439. 

Uncle Tom's Cabin, effect of, 336. 

Underground Railroad, 345. 

Union, plans for, among colonies, 124; 
reasons for and against, 125 ; change 
from Confederation to, 194. 

" Unite or Die," device in Pennsylva- 
nia Gazette, 124, 125. 

United Colonies of New England, 
form league, 61. 

United States, Ponce de Leon first 
Spaniard to touch, 15; declare in- 
dependence, 155 ; name given to 
- Confederation, 159; powers of, 159; 
opens diplomatic relations abroad, 
160; intention of France to limit 
western boundary at Alleghanies, 
177 ; independence of, recognized by 
England, 184; powers delegated to, 
by Constitution, 194 ; forms first new 
State, Vermont, 207 ; first census of, 
209; early industries, 209, 210; man- 
ufactures, 212; : aication and re- 
ligion, 212, 213; frontier, 214, 215; 
pioneer life in, 218; social life, 219; 
dependence at first upon Europe, 
221 ; enthusiasm for French Revolu- 
tion, 223; keeps free from European 
affairs, 222, 223 ; objects to right of 
search, 223; Jay's treaty, 223, 224; 
sovereign rights of, first recognized 
by England, 224; warned from for- 
eign politics by Washington, 226 ; 
purchases Louisiana, 232, 233; war 



with Tripoli, 237; declares war 
against England. 1812, 242; inde- 
pendence of, established by treaty of 
Ghent, 252; becomes less dependent 
on Farope, 2(il ; dealings with In- 
dians, 263; controls entire seaboard, 
266; takes alarm at Holy Alliance, 
266; asserts the Monroe Doctrine, 
267; inventive spirit in, 269; rise 
of manufactures in, 270; railroads 
in, 274; pays Mexico for addi- 
tional territory, 306; sends relief to 
Irish famine, 328 ; Lincoln finds dis- 
organized condition of government, 
353; attitude towards, in England, 
362; concludes treaty of Washing- 
ton with Great Britain, 394, 395; 
represented at Berlin Conference, 
405; present conditions of, 427-430; 
boundaries of, mostly natural, 457, 
458 ; its favorable geographical posi- 
tion, 458; physical divisions, 458; 
coast line, 458, 459; mountains, 459, 
460; rivers, 461, 462; forests, 462; 
lakes, 463; plains, 463; changes 
which are making, 465; powers de- 
nied to. 483, 484. 

United States, frigate, captures Mace- 
donian, 245. 

United States Bank, opposed, 206; new 
charter given to, 272 ; favored by 
Whigs, 291 ; Jackson hostile to, 294; 
fails to renew charter, 295. 

United States Christian Commission, 
358. 

United States courts, 486 ; jurisdiction 
of, 487. 

United States Sanitary Commission, 
358. 

United States Weather Bureau, 428. 

Upshur, Abel P., Secretary of State, 
321 ; Secretary of Navy, 322. 

Usher, John P., Secretary of Interior, 
4:77. 

Utah, part of Mexican cession, 306; 
Mormons settle in, 313; irrigation 
in, 313; question of slavery in, 315; 
made a territory, 315; growth of, 
3i)3; polygamy abolished in, 405. 

Valley Forge, sufferings at, 175, 176. 

Van Buren, Martin, portrait, 295; 
elected President, 296; carries out 
Jackson's policy, 296; opposes an- 
nexation of Texas, 302 ; Secretary 
of State, Vice President, 320. 

Vasco da Gama, rounds Cape of Good 
Hope, 2. 

Venezuela, arbitration regarding 
boundaries of, 414. 



528 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Vera Cruz, established by Cortez, 15 ; 
captured, 305. 

Veragua, Duke of, descendant of Co- 
lumbus, visits United States, 12. 

Vermont, sparsely settled, 115; be- 
comes a State, 207 ; attitude in the 
Kevolution, 207 ; origin of word, 207. 

Verona, Holy Alliance meets at, 26() 

Verrazano, voyage to America, 27. 

Vespucci, Amerigo, voyages of, 12; 
America named for, 12 ; portrait, 13. 

Veto, Presidential, 389. 

Vice President, ofiice, 485 ; provisions 
for electing, 491, 492. 

Vicksburg, surrenders to Grant, 377. 

Victoria, Queen, checks English hos- 
tility to the Union, 362. 

Vikings, boats of, 446; sagas, 447; 
probably landed on North America, 
448 ; invented the keel and the cask, 
448. 

Vilas, William F., Postmaster General, 
440; Secretary of Interior, 441. 

Vinland, unknown to geographers, 448. 

Virginia, named for Queen Elizabeth, 
42; lost colony of, 43; Gosnold sent 
to plant, 44; Jamestown settled, 44, 
45; trials of colonists, 45,46; gold- 
hunting in, 46; English poor sent 
to, 48; new charter, 48; tobacco a 
source of wealth to, 48; does not 
welcome George Calvert, 76; gov- 
ernment, 79; Assembly formed, 79; 
life in, 79; tobacco growing, 79, 80; 
political complexion of, 80 ; royal- 
ists come over to, 80; they control 
affairs, 81 ; Bacon's rebellion, 81 ; 
growth, 81, 82 ; colonial commerce 
and slavery, 120; action against 
Stamp Act, 130, 132; part of, 
threatens secession, 190; calls con- 
vention, 191; most populous State 
in first census, 209; abolishes reli- 
gious tests, 213 ; erects county within 
present Kentucky, 216; hangs John 
Brown, 343 ; calls Peace Conference, 
350; West Virginia breaks from, 
351; becomes chief battle ground of 
war for the Union, 355. 

Virginia Company, 44. 

Virginia Resolutions, 228. 

Volunteers, called for by Lincoln, 354 ; 
renewed call, 368. 

Voters, only church members allowed 
to be, 55. 

Wabash River, St. Clair defeated near 
head waters of, 224. 

Walker, Robert J., Secretary of Treas- 
ury, 322. 



Walker, AVilliam, his expedition to 
Nicaragua, 341. 

Waliabout Bay, 166. 

Wanamaker, John, Postmaster Gen- 
eral, 441. 

War for the Union, cost of, 387. See 
also Confederate States. 

War of 1812, causes, 238, 239, 241 ; de- 
clared, 242; on Canada border, 243; 
naval victories, 245 ; Lake Erie and 
the Thames, 24() ; in Southwest, 247 ; 
campaign of 1814,247-249; Lundy's 
Lane, 428; burning of Washington, 
249; defense and battle of New Or- 
leans, 249-251 ; closed by treaty of 
Ghent, 251 ; establishes independence 
of the United States, 252 ; ends long 
period of warfare, 261 ; stimulates 
home manufactures, 270. 

Ward, General Artemas, 144. 

Warren, General Joseph, 148. 

Washburne, Elihu B., Secretary of 
State, 438. 

Washington, Booker T., 391. 

Washington, George, surveys for Ohio 
Company, 92; reports French en- 
croachments, 92 ; on Braddock's 
staff, 93; retreats with Braddock's 
army, 93; portrait, 108; headquar- 
ters in Craigie House, 114; elected 
commander-rn-chief of army, 146; 
takes command, 148 ; adopts dag for 
army, 151 ; prepares to defend New 
York, 153 ; refuses conditions of 
peace, 166 ; resents Howe's dis- 
courtesy, 166 ; retreats up New York 
Island, 166; abandons Fort Lee, 1(57 ; 
retreats through New Jersey, 167; 
.wins at Trenton and Princeton, 169; 
defeated at Brandy wine, 172; Con- 
way cabal against, 175 ; loyalty of 
friends, 175 ; saves the day at Mon- 
mouth Court House, 17(); goes to 
White Plains, 17(1; entraps Corn- 
wallis, 182; Cornwallis surrenders 
to, 183; enters New York, 184; takes 
farewell of army, 184 ; prevents 
trouble in army from arreai-s of pay- 
ment, 188; chairman of Constitu- 
tional Convention, 191 ; unanimously 
chosen first President, 202; takes 
oath of office, 202 ; Lafayette sends 
key of Bastile to, 222; proclaims 
neutrality, 222; sends Jay to Eng- 
land, 223; signs Jay's treaty, 224; 
indignant at St. Clair's defeat, 224 ; 
retires to Mt. Vernon, 225; injunc- 
tions in farewell Address, 226; again 
called from his retirement, 227; 
death, 228; capital named for, 228. 



GENERAL INDEX. 



.29 



Washington, U.C., made seat of gov- 
ernment, 228; burning of, 248, 241); 
capitol at, extended, 32+; defended 
by General Pope, 370 ; Peace Confer- 
ence at, 350 ; grand review at, after 
war for tlie Union, 385; treaty of, 
35)4, 3!)5. 

Wasliingtun County, now Tennessee, 
217. 

Washington Elm, cut of, 148. 

Wasliington Monument, 40(). 

W^asliington, State, added to Union, 
412. 

Watauga Association, 217. 

Watauga Valley, 21(3. 

Wayne, General Anthony, captures 
fort at Stony Point, 178; defeats 
Indians, 224. 

Webster, Daniel, tribute to John Jay, 
I'.Ki; defends the Union, 292; sketch, 
292 ; portrait, 293 ; helps establish 
northeastern boundary, 309; sup- 
ports Compromise of 1850, 315 ; Sec- 
retary of State, 321, 435. 

AYebster, Noah, 213. 

Welcome, Penn's vessel, 74. 

Welles, Gideon, Secretary of Navy, 
437. 

Wesleys, the, visit Georgia, 85. 

West, the, first shown on Champlain's 
map, 31 ; frontier develo^jment of, 
178; beginnings of, 191 ; emigration 
towards, 2.30. 275, 270. 

West India Company, purposes of, 36. 

West Indies, name given to islands off 
supposed coast of Indies, 11 ; French, 
to be defended by United States, 222. 

West Point, Arnold plots to betray, 
180. 

AVest Virginia, opposed to secession, 
351; admitted to Union, 393. 

Western posts, English garrisons re- 
moved from, 224. 

Western Reserve, 230; townships in, 
231. 

Wethersfield, Conn., settled, 5(5. 

Wheat, begins to be grown in Mary- 
land, 78. 

Wheeler, William A., Vice President, 
439. 

Whig party, in England, 120 ; in United 
States, origin of name, 289; favors 
protective tariff, 290 ; opposes an- 
nexation of Texas, 299; nominates 
Clay, 302; Tyler obnoxious to, 303; 
General Scott last candidate of, 338. 

Whisky rebellion, 224, 225. 

White, John, governor of Virginia 
Colony, 43. 

White, Peregrine, 07. 



! White Plains, 210; battle of, 1()7. 
' Whitefield, George, visits Georgia, 
85 . 

Whitney, Eli, invents cotton gin, 211; 
portrait, sketch, 211. 

Whitney, William C, Secretary of 
Navy, 441. 

Whittier, John (Jreeiileaf, .330; when 
young encouraged by Garrison, 299. 

Wickliffe, Charles A., Postmaster Gen- 
eral, 322. 

Wigwams, 22. 

Wilderness, battle of the, 378. 

Wilkes, Captain Charles, explorations 
of, 320; seizes Mason and Slidell, 
301. 

William and Mary, come to throne, 
05. 

Williams, George H., Attorney Gen- 
eral, 4.38. 439. 

Williams, Roger, banished, .58: settles 
Providence, 58. 

Williams, William, Secretary of War, 
322. 

AVilliamsburg, Va., McClellan attacks 
Jf)hnston at, 308. 

Willing, Charles, 188. 

AVilmington, Del., Fort Christina near 
present site of, 37. 

Wilmot proviso, 300, 307. 

Wilson, Henry, Vice President, 438. 

Wilson, James, Secretary of Agricul- 
ture, 442. 

Wilson, AVilliam L., Postmaster Gen- 
eral 441. 

Winchester, battle of, 380. 

Windom, AVilliam, Secretary of Treas- 
ury, 440, 441. 

Windsor, Conn., 36. 

Winslow, Commodore, sinks Alabama, 
380. 

Winthrop, John, governor of Connec- 
ticut, plants Saybrook, 56. 

Winthrop, John, governor of ]\Iassa- 
chusetts, .53; portrait, 54. 

AVirt, William, Attorney General, 319. 

Wisconsin, reached by Nicolet, 31; 
added to Union, .308. 

Wisconsin River, descended by Joliet, 
31. 

AVise. Henry A., 345. 

AA'olcott, Oliver, Secretary of Treasury, 
2.55, 250. 

AA' olfe, General James, fails to capture 
outworks near Quebec, 97 ; strata- 
gem against Quebec, 97, 98; gains 
Plains of Abraham. 98; death, 99. 

AVonian suffrage, extension of, 428. 

Woodbury, Levi, Secretary of Navy, 
Secretary of Treasury, 320, 321. 



530 



GENERAL I^DEX. 



World's Columbian Exposition, 413, 
Writs of Assistance, 128, 129, 136. 
Wyoming, part of, in Mexican cession, 
o06; added to Union, 412. 

XYZ affair, 227. 

Yale College, 115; social rank in, 113: 
founding of, 122. 

York, Duke of (afterwards James II.), 
country between the Connecticut 
and Delaware rivers deeded to, 62 ; 



gives New Jersey to two English- 
men, 72. See also James II. 

York River, 46. 

Yorktown, Cornwallis trapped at, 182 : 
. surrender at, 183 ; McClellan lays 
siege to, 3(58. 

Young, Brigliam, 313; made governor 
of Utah, 315. 

Yucatan, 15; ruins in, 20. 

Zuni Indians, 16. 



